Somalia
Federal Republic of Somalia | |
|---|---|
| Anthem: Qolobaa Calankeed علم أي امة "Every Nation Has Its Own Flag" | |
_-_SOM_-_UNOCHA.svg) | |
| Capital and largest city | Mogadishu 2°2′N 45°21′E / 2.033°N 45.350°E |
| Official languages | |
| Recognised national languages | Arabic |
| Ethnic groups | |
| Religion | Sunni Islam (official)[1] |
| Demonym(s) | Somali[1] |
| Government | Federal parliamentary republic |
| Hassan Sheikh Mohamud | |
| Hamza Abdi Barre | |
| Senate | |
| House of the People | |
| Establishment | |
| 2350 BC | |
• Macrobia | 980 BC |
• Barbaria | 100 BC |
| 9th century[3][4] | |
| 10th century | |
| 13th century | |
| 13th century | |
| 16th century | |
| 1695–1911 | |
| 1648–1927 | |
| 1878–1927 | |
| 1749–1884 | |
| 1884 | |
| 1889 | |
• Independence and union with the State of Somaliland | 1 July 1960 |
| 1 August 2012 | |
| Area | |
• Total | 637,657[1] km2 (246,201 sq mi) (43rd) |
| Population | |
• 2023 estimate | 18,143,378[5] (78th) |
• Density | 27.2[6]/km2 (70.4/sq mi) (199th) |
| GDP (PPP) | 2024 estimate |
• Total |  $34.03 billion[7] (145th) |
• Per capita | $2,060[7] (181st) |
| GDP (nominal) | 2023 estimate |
• Total | $12.8 billion[7] (142nd) |
• Per capita | $775[7] (179th) |
| Gini (2017) | 36.8[8] medium inequality |
| HDI (2022) |  0.380[9]low (193rd) |
| Currency | Somali shilling (SOS) |
| Time zone | UTC+3 (EAT) |
| Drives on | Right |
| Calling code | +252 |
| ISO 3166 code | SO |
| Internet TLD | .so |
Somalia,[a] officially the Federal Republic of Somalia,[b] is the easternmost country in continental Africa. The country is located in the Horn of Africa and is bordered by Ethiopia to the west, Djibouti[14] to the northwest, Kenya to the southwest, the Gulf of Aden to the north, and the Indian Ocean to the east. Somalia has the longest coastline on Africa's mainland.[15] Somalia has an estimated population of 18.1 million,[16][17][18] of which 2.7 million live in the capital and largest city, Mogadishu. Around 85% of its residents are ethnic Somalis and the official languages of the country are Somali and Arabic, though the former is the primary language. Somalia has historic and religious ties to the Arab world.[19] As such the people in Somalia are Muslims,[20] the majority of them Sunni.[21]
In antiquity, Somalia was an important commercial center.[22][23] During the Middle Ages, several powerful Somali empires dominated the regional trade, including the Ajuran Sultanate, Adal Sultanate, and the Sultanate of the Geledi. In the late 19th century, Somali sultanates were colonized by the Italian and British Empires,[24][25][26] who merged all of these tribal territories into two colonies: Italian Somaliland and British Somaliland.[27][28] In 1960, the two territories united to form the independent Somali Republic under a civilian government.[29] Siad Barre of the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) seized power in 1969 and established the Somali Democratic Republic, brutally attempting to squash the Somaliland War of Independence in the north of the country.[30] The SRC collapsed in 1991 with the onset of the Somali Civil War.[31] The Transitional National Government of Somalia (TNG) was established in 2000, followed by the formation of the Transitional Federal Government of Somalia (TFG) in 2004, which reestablished the Somali Armed Forces.[1][32]
At the end of 2006, a US-backed Ethiopian invasion overthrew the Islamic Courts Union (ICU), leading to the installation of the TFG in Mogadishu under an Ethiopian military occupation.[33][34] The subsequent insurgency which emerged saw the ICU fragment into various rebel factions, including the hardline group al-Shabaab, which waged a protracted conflict against Ethiopian forces.[34] al-Shabaab soon began asserting territorial control for the first time,[35] and by late 2008 the insurgency had driven the Ethiopian army out of much of Somalia.[36] In 2009, a new TFG government was established.[37][38] By mid-2012, al-Shabaab lost most of its territories during fighting against the TFG and African Union troops.[39] That same year, al-Shabaab pledged allegiance to Al-Qaeda.[40] The insurgents still control much of central and southern Somalia,[41][42] and wield influence in government-controlled areas,[42] with the town of Jilib acting as the de facto capital for the insurgents.[41][43]
A new provisional constitution was passed in August 2012,[44][45] reforming Somalia as a federation.[46] The same month, the Federal Government of Somalia was formed[47] and a period of reconstruction began in Mogadishu, despite al-Shabaab frequently carrying out attacks there.[39][48] Somalia is among the least developed countries in the world, as evidenced by its ranking in metrics such as GDP per capita,[49] It has maintained an informal economy mainly based on livestock, remittances from Somalis working abroad, and telecommunications.[50] It is a member of the United Nations,[51] the Arab League,[52] African Union,[53] Non-Aligned Movement,[54] East African Community,[55] and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.[56]
History
Prehistory
Somalia was likely one of the first lands to be settled by early humans due to its location. Hunter-gatherers who would later migrate out of Africa likely settled here before their migrations.[57] During the Stone Age, the Doian and Hargeisan cultures flourished here.[58][59][60][57][61][62] The oldest evidence of burial customs in the Horn of Africa comes from cemeteries in Somalia dating back to the 4th millennium BCE.[63] The stone implements from the Jalelo site in the north were also characterized in 1909 as important artifacts demonstrating the archaeological universality during the Paleolithic between the East and the West.[64]
According to linguists, the first Afroasiatic-speaking populations arrived in the region during the ensuing Neolithic period from the family's proposed urheimat ("original homeland") in the Nile Valley,[65] or the Near East.[66]
The Laas Geel complex on the outskirts of Hargeisa in northwestern Somalia dates back approximately 5,000 years, and has rock art depicting both wild animals and decorated cows.[67] Other cave paintings are found in the northern Dhambalin region, which feature one of the earliest known depictions of a hunter on horseback. The rock art is dated to 1,000 to 3,000 BCE.[68][69] Additionally, between the towns of Las Khorey and El Ayo in northern Somalia lies Karinhegane, the site of numerous cave paintings, which collectively have been estimated to be around 2,500 years old.[70][71]
Antiquity and classical era
Ancient pyramidical structures, mausoleums, ruined cities and stone walls, such as the Wargaade Wall, are evidence of an old civilization that once thrived in the Somali peninsula.[72][73] This civilization enjoyed a trading relationship with ancient Egypt and Mycenaean Greece since the second millennium BCE, supporting the hypothesis that Somalia or adjacent regions were the location of the ancient Land of Punt.[72][74] The Puntites native to the region traded myrrh, spices, gold, ebony, short-horned cattle, ivory and frankincense with the Egyptians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Indians, Chinese and Romans through their commercial ports. An Egyptian expedition sent to Punt by the 18th dynasty Queen Hatshepsut is recorded on the temple reliefs at Deir el-Bahari, during the reign of the Puntite King Parahu and Queen Ati.[72]
In the classical era, the Macrobians, who may have been ancestral to Somalis, established a powerful kingdom that ruled large parts of modern Somalia. They were reputed for their longevity and wealth, and were said to be the "tallest and handsomest of all men".[75] The Macrobians were warrior herders and seafarers. According to Herodotus' account, the Persian Emperor Cambyses II, upon his conquest of Egypt in 525 BC, sent ambassadors to Macrobia, bringing luxury gifts for the Macrobian king to entice his submission. The Macrobian ruler, who was elected based on his stature and beauty, replied instead with a challenge for his Persian counterpart in the form of an unstrung bow: if the Persians could manage to draw it, they would have the right to invade his country; but until then, they should thank the gods that the Macrobians never decided to invade their empire.[75][76] The Macrobians were a regional power reputed for their advanced architecture and gold wealth, which was so plentiful that they shackled their prisoners in golden chains.[76] The camel is believed to have been domesticated in the Horn region sometime between the 2nd and 3rd millennium BCE. From there, it spread to Egypt and the Maghreb.[77]
During the classical period, the Barbara city-states of Mosylon, Opone, Mundus, Isis, Malao, Avalites, Essina, Nikon and Sarapion developed a lucrative trade network, connecting with merchants from Ptolemaic Egypt, Ancient Greece, Phoenicia, Parthian Persia, Saba, the Nabataean Kingdom, and the Roman Empire. They used the ancient Somali maritime vessel known as the beden to transport their cargo.
After the Roman conquest of the Nabataean Empire and the Roman naval presence at Aden to curb piracy, Arab and Somali merchants agreed with the Romans to bar Indian ships from trading in the free port cities of the Arabian peninsula[78] to protect the interests of Somali and Arab merchants in the lucrative commerce between the Red and Mediterranean Seas.[79] However, Indian merchants continued to trade in the port cities of the Somali peninsula, which was free from Roman interference.[80] For centuries, Indian merchants brought large quantities of cinnamon to Somalia and Arabia from Ceylon and the Spice Islands. The source of the cinnamon and other spices is said to have been the best-kept secret of Arab and Somali merchants in their trade with the Roman and Greek world; the Romans and Greeks believed the source to have been the Somali peninsula.[81] The collusive agreement among Somali and Arab traders inflated the price of Indian and Chinese cinnamon in North Africa, the Near East, and Europe, and made the cinnamon trade a very profitable revenue generator, especially for the Somali merchants.[79]
Birth of Islam and the Middle Ages
Islam was introduced to the area early on by the first Muslims of Mecca fleeing prosecution during the first Hejira with Masjid al-Qiblatayn in Zeila being built before the Qiblah towards Mecca. It is one of the oldest mosques in Africa.[82] In the late 9th century, Al-Yaqubi wrote that Muslims were living along the northern Somali seaboard.[3] He also mentioned that the Adal Kingdom had its capital in the city.[3][83] According to Leo Africanus, the Adal Sultanate was governed by local Somali dynasties and its realm encompassed the geographical area between the Bab el Mandeb and Cape Guardafui. It was thus flanked to the south by the Ajuran Empire and to the west by the Abyssinian Empire.[84]
Throughout the Middle Ages, Arab immigrants arrived in Somaliland, a historical experience which would later lead to the legendary stories about Muslim sheikhs such as Daarood and Ishaaq bin Ahmed (the purported ancestors of the Darod and Isaaq clans, respectively) travelling from Arabia to Somalia and marrying into the local Dir clan.[85]
In 1332, the Zeila-based King of Adal was slain in a military campaign aimed at halting Abyssinian emperor Amda Seyon I's march toward the city.[86] When the last Sultan of Ifat, Sa'ad ad-Din II, was also killed by Emperor Dawit I in Zeila in 1410, his children escaped to Yemen, before returning in 1415.[87] In the early 15th century, Adal's capital was moved further inland to the town of Dakkar, where Sabr ad-Din II, the eldest son of Sa'ad ad-Din II, established a new base after his return from Yemen.[88][89]
Adal's headquarters were again relocated the following century, this time southward to Harar. From this new capital, Adal organised an effective army led by Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (Ahmad "Gurey" or "Gran"; both meaning "the left-handed") and his closest top general Garad Hirabu "Emir Of The Somalis that invaded the Abyssinian empire.[89] This 16th-century campaign is historically known as the Conquest of Abyssinia (Futuh al-Habash). During the war, Imam Ahmad pioneered the use of cannons supplied by the Ottoman Empire, which he imported through Zeila and deployed against Abyssinian forces and their Portuguese allies led by Cristóvão da Gama.[90]
During the Ajuran Sultanate period, the city-states and republics of Merca, Mogadishu, Barawa, Hobyo and their respective ports flourished and had a lucrative foreign commerce with ships sailing to and from Arabia, India, Venetia,[91] Persia, Egypt, Portugal, and as far away as China. Vasco da Gama, who passed by Mogadishu in the 15th century, noted that it was a large city with houses several storeys high and large palaces in its centre, in addition to many mosques with cylindrical minarets.[92] The Harla, an early Hamitic group of tall stature who inhabited parts of Somalia, Tchertcher and other areas in the Horn, also erected various tumuli.[93] These masons are believed to have been ancestral to ethnic Somalis.[94]
In the 16th century, Duarte Barbosa noted that many ships from the Kingdom of Cambaya in modern-day India sailed to Mogadishu with cloth and spices, for which they in return received gold, wax and ivory. Barbosa also highlighted the abundance of meat, wheat, barley, horses, and fruit on the coastal markets, which generated enormous wealth for the merchants.[95] Mogadishu, the center of a thriving textile industry known as toob benadir (specialized for the markets in Egypt, among other places[96]), together with Merca and Barawa, also served as a transit stop for Swahili merchants from Mombasa and Malindi and for the gold trade from Kilwa.[97] Jewish merchants from the Hormuz brought their Indian textile and fruit to the Somali coast in exchange for grain and wood.[98]
Trading relations were established with Malacca in the 15th century,[99] with cloth, ambergris and porcelain being the main commodities of the trade.[100] Giraffes, zebras and incense were exported to the Ming Empire of China, which established Somali merchants as leaders in the commerce between East Asia and the Horn.[101] Hindu merchants from Surat and Southeast African merchants from Pate, seeking to bypass both the Portuguese India blockade ( and later the Omani interference), used the Somali ports of Merca and Barawa (which were out of the two powers' direct jurisdiction) to conduct their trade in safety and without interference.[102]
Early modern era and the scramble for Africa
In the early modern period, successor states to the Adal Sultanate and Ajuran Sultanate began to flourish in Somalia. These included the Hiraab Imamate, the Isaaq Sultanate led by the Guled dynasty,[103][104] the Habr Yunis Sultanate led by the Ainanshe dynasty,[24] the Sultanate of the Geledi (Gobroon dynasty), the Majeerteen Sultanate (Migiurtinia), and the Sultanate of Hobyo (Obbia). They continued the tradition of castle-building and seaborne trade established by previous Somali empires.
Sultan Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim, the third Sultan of the House of Gobroon, started the golden age of the Gobroon Dynasty. His army came out victorious during the Bardheere Jihad, which restored stability in the region and revitalized the East African ivory trade. He also had cordial relations and received gifts from the rulers of neighbouring and distant kingdoms such as the Omani, Witu and Yemeni Sultans.
Sultan Ibrahim's son Ahmed Yusuf succeeded him as one of the most important figures in 19th-century East Africa, receiving tribute from Omani governors and creating alliances with important Muslim families on the East African coast.
In Somaliland, the Isaaq Sultanate was established in 1750. The Isaaq Sultanate was a Somali kingdom that ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries.[103] It spanned the territories of the Isaaq clan, descendants of the Banu Hashim clan,[105] in modern-day Somaliland and Ethiopia. The sultanate was governed by the Rer Guled branch established by the first sultan, Sultan Guled Abdi, of the Eidagale clan.[106][107][108] According to oral tradition, prior to the Guled dynasty the Isaaq clan-family were ruled by a dynasty of the Tolje'lo branch starting from, descendants of Ahmed nicknamed Tol Je'lo, the eldest son of Sheikh Ishaaq's Harari wife. There were eight Tolje'lo rulers in total, starting with Boqor Harun (Somali: Boqor Haaruun) who ruled the Isaaq Sultanate for centuries starting from the 13th century.[109][110] The last Tolje'lo ruler Garad Dhuh Barar (Somali: Dhuux Baraar) was overthrown by a coalition of Isaaq clans. The once strong Tolje'lo clan were scattered and took refuge amongst the Habr Awal with whom they still mostly live.[111][112]
In the late 19th century, after the Berlin Conference of 1884, European powers began the Scramble for Africa. In that year, a British protectorate was declared over part of Somalia, on the African coast opposite South Yemen.[113] Initially, this region was under the control of the Indian Office, and so administered as part of the Indian Empire; in 1898 it was transferred to control by London.[113] In 1889, the protectorate and later colony of Italian Somalia was officially established by Italy through various treaties signed with a number of chiefs and sultans;[114] Sultan Yusuf Ali Kenadid first sent a request to Italy in late December 1888 to make his Sultanate of Hobyo an Italian protectorate before later signing a treaty in 1889.[115]
The Dervish movement successfully repulsed the British Empire four times and forced it to retreat to the coastal region.[116] The Darawiish defeated the Italian, British, Abyssinian colonial powers on numerous occasions, most notably, the 1903 victory at Cagaarweyne commanded by Suleiman Aden Galaydh,[117] forcing the British Empire to retreat to the coastal region in the early 1900s.[118] The Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 by British airpower.[119]
The dawn of fascism in the early 1920s heralded a change of strategy for Italy, as the north-eastern sultanates were soon to be forced within the boundaries of La Grande Somalia ("Greater Somalia") according to the plan of Fascist Italy. With the arrival of Governor Cesare Maria De Vecchi on 15 December 1923, things began to change for that part of Somaliland known as Italian Somaliland. The last piece of land acquired by Italy in Somalia was Oltre Giuba, present-day Jubaland region, in 1925.[115]
The Italians began local infrastructure projects, including the construction of hospitals, farms and schools.[120] Fascist Italy, under Benito Mussolini, attacked Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in 1935, with an aim to colonize it. The invasion was condemned by the League of Nations, but little was done to stop it or to liberate occupied Ethiopia. In 1936, Italian Somalia was integrated into Italian East Africa, alongside Eritrea and Ethiopia, as the Somalia Governorate. On 3 August 1940, Italian troops, including Somali colonial units, crossed from Ethiopia to invade British Somaliland, and by 14 August, succeeded in taking Berbera from the British.[citation needed]
A British force, including troops from several African countries, launched the campaign in January 1941 from Kenya to liberate British Somaliland and Italian-occupied Ethiopia and conquer Italian Somaliland. By February most of Italian Somaliland was captured and, in March, British Somaliland was retaken from the sea. The forces of the British Empire operating in Somaliland comprised the three divisions of South African, West African, and East African troops. They were assisted by Somali forces led by Abdulahi Hassan with Somalis of the Isaaq, Dhulbahante, and Warsangali clans prominently participating. The number of Italian Somalis began to decline after World War II, with fewer than 10,000 remaining in 1960.[121]
Independence (1960–1969)
Following World War II, Britain retained control of both British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland as protectorates. In 1945, during the Potsdam Conference, the United Nations granted Italy trusteeship of Italian Somaliland as the Trust Territory of Somaliland, on the condition first proposed by the Somali Youth League (SYL) and other nascent Somali political organizations, such as Hizbia Digil Mirifle Somali (HDMS) and the Somali National League (SNL)—that Somalia achieve independence within ten years.[122][123] British Somaliland remained a protectorate of Britain until 1960.[121]
To the extent that Italy held the territory by UN mandate, the trusteeship provisions gave the Somalis the opportunity to gain experience in Western political education and self-government. These were advantages that British Somaliland, which was to be incorporated into the new Somali state, did not have. Although in the 1950s British colonial officials attempted, through various administrative development efforts, to make up for past neglect, the protectorate stagnated in political administrative development. The disparity between the two territories in economic development and political experience would later cause serious difficulties integrating the two parts.[124]
Meanwhile, in 1948, under pressure from their World War II allies and to the dismay of the Somalis,[125] the British returned the Haud (an important Somali grazing area that was presumably protected by British treaties with the Somalis in 1884 and 1886) and the Somali Region to Ethiopia, based on a treaty they signed in 1897 in which the British ceded Somali territory to the Ethiopian Emperor Menelik in exchange for his help against possible advances by the French.[126]
Britain included the conditional provision that the Somali residents would retain their autonomy, but Ethiopia immediately claimed sovereignty over the area. This prompted an unsuccessful bid by Britain in 1956 to buy back the Somali lands it had turned over.[122] Britain also granted administration of the almost exclusively Somali-inhabited Northern Frontier District (NFD) to Kenyan nationalists.[127][128] This was despite a plebiscite in which, according to a British colonial commission, almost all of the territory's ethnic Somalis favored joining the newly formed Somali Republic.[129]
A referendum was held in neighbouring Djibouti (then known as French Somaliland) in 1958, on the eve of Somalia's independence in 1960, to decide whether or not to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, largely due to a combined yes vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans.[130] There was also widespread vote rigging, with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the referendum reached the polls.[131]
The majority of those who voted 'no' were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia, as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi, Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later.[130] Djibouti finally gained independence from France in 1977, and Hassan Gouled Aptidon, a Somali who had campaigned for a 'yes' vote in the referendum of 1976, eventually became Djibouti's first president (1977–1999).[130]
On 1 July 1960, five days after the former British Somaliland protectorate obtained independence as the State of Somaliland, the territory united with the Trust Territory of Somaliland to form the Somali Republic,[132] albeit within boundaries drawn up by Italy and Britain.[133][134] A government was formed by Abdullahi Issa and Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal with other members of the trusteeship and protectorate governments, with Abdulcadir Muhammed Aden as President of the Somali National Assembly, Aden Abdullah Osman Daar as President of the Somali Republic, and Abdirashid Ali Shermarke as Prime Minister (later to become president from 1967 to 1969). On 20 July 1961 and through a popular referendum, was ratified popularly by the people of Somalia under Italian trusteeship, Most of the people from the former Somaliland Protectorate did not participate in the referendum, although only a small number of Somalilanders who participated the referendum voted against the new constitution,[135] which was first drafted in 1960.[29] In 1967, Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal became Prime Minister, a position to which he was appointed by Shermarke. Egal would later become the President of the autonomous Somaliland region in northwestern Somalia.
Somali Democratic Republic (1969–1991)
Coup d'Etat
On the 15th of October, while president Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke was touring drought-stricken Las Anood, his personal bodyguard shot and killed him. Former Secretary of State Henry Kissinger concluded that the bodyguard was acting of his own accord.[136]
Six days later, on the 21st of October, General Siad led a military coup and successfully overthrew the parliamentary government. Modern political analysts assert that the coup was motivated by corruption in the parliamentary government.[137]
The bodyguard was tried, tortured and executed by the Supreme Revolutionary Council. He came from the same clan background as the President who he killed.[138]
Alongside Barre, the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) that assumed power after President Sharmarke's assassination was led by Brigadier General Mohamed Ainanshe Guled, Lieutenant Colonel Salaad Gabeyre Kediye and Chief of Police Jama Korshel. Kediye officially held the title "Father of the Revolution", and Barre shortly afterwards became the head of the SRC.[139] The SRC subsequently renamed the country the Somali Democratic Republic,[140][141] dissolved the parliament and the Supreme Court, and suspended the constitution.[142]
The revolutionary government established large-scale public works programs and successfully implemented an urban and rural literacy campaign, which helped dramatically increase the literacy rate. The Somali Democratic Republic achieved a literacy rate of 70%, one of the highest in Africa at the time.[143][144]
In addition to a nationalization program of industry and land, the new regime's foreign policy placed an emphasis on Somalia's traditional and religious links with the Arab world, eventually joining the Arab League in February, 1974.[145] That same year, Barre also served as chairman of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), the predecessor of the African Union (AU).[146]
In July 1976, Barre's SRC disbanded itself and established in its place the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (SRSP), a one-party government based on scientific socialism and Islamic tenets. The SRSP was an attempt to reconcile the official state ideology with the official state religion by adapting Marxist precepts to local circumstances. Emphasis was placed on the Muslim principles of social progress, equality and justice, which the government argued formed the core of scientific socialism and its own accent on self-sufficiency, public participation and popular control, as well as direct ownership of the means of production. While the SRSP encouraged private investment on a limited scale, the administration's overall direction was essentially communist.[142]
In July 1977, the Ogaden War broke out after Barre's government used a plea for national unity to justify an aggressive incorporation of the predominantly Somali-inhabited Ogaden region of Ethiopia into a Pan-Somali Greater Somalia, along with the rich agricultural lands of south-eastern Ethiopia, infrastructure, and strategically important areas as far north as Djibouti.[147] In the first week of the conflict, Somali armed forces took southern and central Ogaden and for most of the war, the Somali army scored continuous victories on the Ethiopian army and followed them as far as Sidamo. By September 1977, Somalia controlled 90% of the Ogaden and captured strategic cities such as Jijiga and put heavy pressure on Dire Dawa, threatening the train route from the latter city to Djibouti. After the siege of Harar, a massive unprecedented Soviet intervention consisting of 20,000 Cuban forces and several thousand Soviet experts came to the aid of Ethiopia's communist Derg regime. By 1978, the Somali troops were ultimately pushed out of the Ogaden. This shift in support by the Soviet Union motivated the Barre government to seek allies elsewhere. It eventually settled on the Soviets' Cold War arch-rival, the United States, which had been courting the Somali government for some time. Somalia's initial friendship with the Soviet Union and later partnership with the United States enabled it to build the largest army in Africa.[148]
A new constitution was promulgated in 1979 under which elections for a People's Assembly were held. However, Barre's Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party politburo continued to rule.[141] In October 1980, the SRSP was disbanded, and the Supreme Revolutionary Council was re-established in its place.[142] By that time, Barre's government had become increasingly unpopular. Many Somalis had become disillusioned with life under military dictatorship.
The regime was weakened further in the 1980s as the Cold War drew to a close and Somalia's strategic importance was diminished. The government became increasingly authoritarian, and resistance movements, encouraged by Ethiopia, sprang up across the country, eventually leading to the Somali Civil War. Among the militia groups were the Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF), United Somali Congress (USC), Somali National Movement (SNM) and the Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM), together with the non-violent political oppositions of the Somali Democratic Movement (SDM), the Somali Democratic Alliance (SDA) and the Somali Manifesto Group (SMG).
Somalia Civil War
As the moral authority of Barre's government was gradually eroded, many Somalis became disillusioned with life under military rule. By the mid-1980s, resistance movements supported by Ethiopia's communist Derg administration had sprung up across the country. Barre responded by ordering punitive measures against those he perceived as locally supporting the guerrillas, especially in the northern regions. The clampdown included bombing of cities, with the northwestern administrative centre of Hargeisa, a Somali National Movement (SNM) stronghold, among the targeted areas in 1988.[149][150]
The clampdown initiated by Barre's government extended its reach beyond the initial bombings in the north to encompass various regions across the country. This reproduction of aggressive strategies aimed at stifling descent and retaining authority over the populace was a hallmark of the government's repressive actions in the South. One of the most notable instances occurred in 1991, when Barre's regime initiated a ruthless aerial assault that led to the deaths of numerous innocent individuals in the town of Beledwene, situated in southern Somalia.[151] The cruelty and magnitude of this atrocity highlighted the degree to which the government was prepared to go to quash any sort of opposition or resistance, displaying a blatant disregard for human rights and the worth of human life.[152]
Another notable instance of Barre's repressive policies occurred in the city of Baidoa, which earned the nickname 'the city of death' due to the tragic events that unfolded there during the famine and civil war.[153] Hundreds of thousands of individuals lost their lives as a consequence of governmental strategies specifically aimed at the Rahanweyn community residing in these areas.[154]
During 1990, in the capital city of Mogadishu, the residents were prohibited from gathering publicly in groups greater than three or four. Fuel shortages, inflation, and currency devaluation impacted the economy. A thriving black market existed in the centre of the city as banks experienced shortages of local currency for exchange. Harsh exchange control regulations were introduced to prevent export of foreign currency. Although no travel restrictions were placed on foreigners, photographing many locations was banned. During daytime in Mogadishu, the appearance of any government military force was extremely rare. Alleged late-night operations by government authorities, however, included "disappearances" of individuals from their homes.[155]
In 1991, the Barre administration was ousted by a coalition of clan-based opposition groups, backed by Ethiopia's then-ruling Derg regime and Libya.[156] Following a meeting of the Somali National Movement and northern clans' elders, the northern former British portion of the country declared its independence as the Republic of Somaliland in May 1991. Although de facto independent and relatively stable compared to the tumultuous south, it has not been recognized by any foreign government.[157][158]
Many of the opposition groups subsequently began competing for influence in the power vacuum that followed the ouster of Barre's regime. In the south, armed factions led by USC commanders General Mohamed Farah Aidid and Ali Mahdi Mohamed, in particular, clashed as each sought to exert authority over the capital.[160] In 1991, a multi-phased international conference on Somalia was held in neighbouring Djibouti[161] Owing to the legitimacy bestowed on Muhammad by the Djibouti conference, he was subsequently recognized by the international community as the new President of Somalia.[161] He was not able to exert his authority beyond parts of the capital. Power was instead vied with other faction leaders in the southern half of Somalia and with autonomous sub-national entities in the north.[162] The Djibouti conference was followed by two abortive agreements for national reconciliation and disarmament, which were signed by 15 political stakeholders: an agreement to hold an Informal Preparatory Meeting on National Reconciliation, and the 1993 Addis Ababa Agreement made at the Conference on National Reconciliation.[citation needed]
In the early 1990s, due to the protracted lack of a permanent central authority, Somalia began to be characterized as a "failed state".[163][164][165]
Transitional institutions
.jpg)
The Transitional National Government (TNG) was established in April–May 2000 at the Somalia National Peace Conference (SNPC) held in Arta, Djibouti. Abdiqasim Salad Hassan was selected as the President of the nation's new Transitional National Government (TNG), an interim administration formed to guide Somalia to its third permanent republican government.[166] The TNG's internal problems led to the replacement of the Prime Minister four times in three years, and the administrative body's reported bankruptcy in December 2003. Its mandate ended at the same time.[167]
On 10 October 2004, legislators elected Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed as the first President of the Transitional Federal Government (TFG), the Transitional National Government's successor.[168] the TFG was the second interim administration aiming to restore national institutions to Somalia after the 1991 collapse of the Siad Barre regime and the ensuing civil war.[169]
The Transitional Federal Government (TFG) was the internationally recognised government of Somalia until 20 August 2012, when its tenure officially ended.[47] It was established as one of the Transitional Federal Institutions (TFIs) of government as defined in the Transitional Federal Charter (TFC) adopted in November 2004 by the Transitional Federal Parliament (TFP). The Transitional Federal Government officially comprised the executive branch of government, with the TFP serving as the legislative branch. The government was headed by the President of Somalia, to whom the cabinet reported through the Prime Minister. However, it was also used as a general term to refer to all three branches collectively.[citation needed]
Islamic Courts Union
In 2006, the Islamic Courts Union (ICU), assumed control of much of the southern part of the country for 6 months and imposed Shari'a law. Top UN officials have referred to this brief period as a 'Golden era' in the history of Somali politics.[170][171]
Transitional Federal Government
The Transitional Federal Government sought to re-establish its authority, and, with the assistance of Ethiopian troops, African Union peacekeepers and air support by the United States, drove out the ICU and solidified its rule.[172] On 8 January 2007, TFG President Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed entered Mogadishu with the Ethiopian military support for the first time since being elected to office. The government then relocated to Villa Somalia in the capital from its interim location in Baidoa. This marked the first time since the fall of the Siad Barre regime in 1991 that the federal government controlled most of the country.[173]
Al Shabaab insurgency
Al-Shabaab opposed the Ethiopian military's presence in Somalia and continued an insurgency against the TFG. Throughout 2007 and 2008, Al-Shabaab scored military victories, seizing control of key towns and ports in both central and southern Somalia. By January 2009, Al-Shabaab and other militias had forced the Ethiopian troops to retreat, leaving behind an under-equipped African Union peacekeeping force to assist the Transitional Federal Government's troops.[174]
Owing to a lack of funding and human resources, an arms embargo that made it difficult to re-establish a national security force, and general indifference on the part of the international community, Yusuf found himself obliged to deploy thousands of troops from Puntland to Mogadishu to sustain the battle against insurgent elements in the southern part of the country. Financial support for this effort was provided by the autonomous region's government. This left little revenue for Puntland's own security forces and civil service employees, leaving the territory vulnerable to piracy and terrorist attacks.[175][176]
On 29 December 2008, Yusuf announced before a united parliament in Baidoa his resignation as President of Somalia. In his speech, which was broadcast on national radio, Yusuf expressed regret at failing to end the country's seventeen-year conflict as his government had been mandated to do.[177] He also blamed the international community for their failure to support the government, and said that the speaker of parliament would succeed him in office per the Charter of the Transitional Federal Government.[178]
End of transitional period
Between 31 May and 9 June 2008, representatives of Somalia's federal government and the Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia (ARS) participated in peace talks in Djibouti brokered by the former United Nations Special Envoy to Somalia, Ahmedou Ould-Abdallah. The conference ended with a signed agreement calling for the withdrawal of Ethiopian troops in exchange for the cessation of armed confrontation. Parliament was subsequently expanded to 550 seats to accommodate ARS members, which then elected Sheikh Sharif Sheikh Ahmed, as president.[1] With the help of a small team of African Union troops, the TFG began a counteroffensive in February 2009 to assume full control of the southern half of the country. To solidify its rule, the TFG formed an alliance with the Islamic Courts Union, other members of the Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia, and Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a, a moderate Sufi militia.[179] Furthermore, Al-Shabaab and Hizbul Islam, the two main Islamist groups in opposition, began to fight amongst themselves in mid-2009.[180] As a truce, in March 2009, the TFG announced that it would re-implement Shari'a as the nation's official judicial system.[181] However, conflict continued in the southern and central parts of the country. Within months, the TFG had gone from holding about 70% of south-central Somalia's conflict zones, to losing control of over 80% of the disputed territory to the Islamist insurgents.[173]
In October 2011, a coordinated operation, Operation Linda Nchi between the Somali and Kenyan militaries and multinational forces began against the Al-Shabaab in southern Somalia.[182][183] By September 2012, Somali, Kenyan, and Raskamboni forces had managed to capture Al-Shabaab's last major stronghold, the southern port of Kismayo.[184] In July 2012, three European Union operations were launched to engage with Somalia: EUTM Somalia, EU Naval Force Somalia Operation Atalanta off the Horn of Africa, and EUCAP Nestor.[185]
As part of the official "Roadmap for the End of Transition", a political process that provided clear benchmarks leading toward the formation of permanent democratic institutions in Somalia, the Transitional Federal Government's interim mandate ended on 20 August 2012.[39] The Federal Parliament of Somalia was concurrently inaugurated.[47]
Federal government
The Federal Government of Somalia, the first permanent central government in the country since the start of the civil war, was established in August 2012. In August 2014, the Somali government-led Operation Indian Ocean was launched against insurgent-held pockets in the countryside.[186]
Geography
Somalia borders Djibouti to the northwest, Ethiopia to the west, the Gulf of Aden to the north, the Somali Sea and Guardafui Channel to the east, and Kenya to the southwest. With a land area of 637,657 square kilometers, Somalia's terrain consists mainly of plateaus, plains and highlands.[187] Its coastline is more than 3,333 kilometers in length, the longest of mainland Africa.[15] It has been described as being roughly shaped "like a tilted number seven".[188]
In the far north, the rugged east–west ranges of the Ogo Mountains lie at varying distances from the Gulf of Aden coast. Hot conditions prevail year-round, along with periodic monsoon winds and irregular rainfall.[189] Geology suggests the presence of valuable mineral deposits. Somalia is separated from Seychelles by the Somali Sea and is separated from Socotra by the Guardafui Channel.
Administrative divisions
Somalia is officially divided into eighteen regions (gobollada, singular gobol),[1] which in turn are subdivided into districts. The regions are:
| Region | Area (km2) | Population[190][191] | Capital |
|---|---|---|---|
| Awdal | 21,374 | 1,010,566 | Borama |
| Bari | 70,088 | 949,693 | Bosaso |
| Nugal | 26,180 | 473,940 | Garowe |
| Mudug | 72,933 | 864,728 | Galkayo |
| Galguduud | 46,126 | 634,309 | Dusmareb |
| Hiran | 31,510 | 566,431 | Beledweyne |
| Middle Shabelle | 22,663 | 622,660 | Jowhar |
| Banaadir | 370 | 2,330,708 | Mogadishu |
| Lower Shabelle | 25,285 | 1,218,733 | Barawa |
| Togdheer | 38,663 | 962,439 | Burao |
| Bakool | 26,962 | 383,360 | Xuddur |
| Woqooyi Galbeed | 28,836 | 1,744,367 | Hargeisa |
| Bay | 35,156 | 1,035,904 | Baidoa |
| Gedo | 60,389 | 566,318 | Garbahaarreey |
| Middle Juba | 9,836 | 432,248 | Bu'aale |
| Lower Juba | 42,876 | 632,924 | Kismayo |
| Sanaag | 53,374 | 578,092 | Erigavo |
| Sool | 25,036 | 618,619 | Las Anod |
Northern Somalia is now de facto divided up among the autonomous regions of Puntland (which considers itself an autonomous state), Somaliland (a self-declared but unrecognized state) and newly established Khatumo State of Somalia. In central Somalia, Galmudug is another regional entity that emerged just south of Puntland. Jubaland in the far south is a fourth autonomous region within the federation.[1] In 2014, a new South West State was likewise established.[192] In April 2015, a formation conference was also launched for a new Hirshabelle State.[193]
The Federal Parliament is tasked with selecting the ultimate number and boundaries of the autonomous regional states (officially Federal Member States) within the Federal Republic of Somalia.[194][195]
Location
2.png)
Somalia is bordered by Kenya to the southwest, the Gulf of Aden to the north, the Guardafui Channel and Indian Ocean to the east, and Ethiopia to the west. The country borders Djibouti. It lies between latitudes 2°S and 12°N, and longitudes 41° and 52°E. Strategically located at the mouth of the Bab el Mandeb gateway to the Red Sea and the Suez Canal, the country occupies the tip of a region that, due to its resemblance on the map to a rhinoceros' horn, is commonly referred to as the Horn of Africa.[1][196]
Waters
Somalia has the longest coastline on the mainland of Africa,[197] with a seaboard that stretches 3,333 kilometres (2,071 mi). Its terrain consists mainly of plateaus, plains and highlands. The nation has a total area of 637,657 square kilometres (246,201 sq mi) of which constitutes land, with 10,320 square kilometres (3,980 sq mi) of water. Somalia's land boundaries extend to about 2,340 kilometres (1,450 mi); 58 kilometres (36 mi) of that is shared with Djibouti, 682 kilometres (424 mi) with Kenya, and 1,626 kilometres (1,010 mi) with Ethiopia. Its maritime claims include territorial waters of 200 nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi).[1]
Somalia has several islands and archipelagos on its coast, including the Bajuni Islands and the Saad ad-Din Archipelago: see islands of Somalia.
Habitat
Somalia contains seven terrestrial ecoregions: Ethiopian montane forests, Northern Zanzibar–Inhambane coastal forest mosaic, Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets, Ethiopian xeric grasslands and shrublands, Hobyo grasslands and shrublands, Somali montane xeric woodlands, and East African mangroves.[198]
In the north, a scrub-covered, semi-desert plain referred as the Guban lies parallel to the Gulf of Aden littoral. With a width of twelve kilometres in the west to as little as two kilometres in the east, the plain is bisected by watercourses that are essentially beds of dry sand except during the rainy seasons. When the rains arrive, the Guban's low bushes and grass clumps transform into lush vegetation.[196] This coastal strip is part of the Ethiopian xeric grasslands and shrublands ecoregion.
Cal Madow is a mountain range in the northeastern part of the country. Extending from several kilometres west of the city of Bosaso to the northwest of Erigavo, it features Somalia's highest peak, Shimbiris, which sits at an elevation of about 2,416 metres (7,927 ft).[1] The rugged east–west ranges of the Karkaar Mountains also lie to the interior of the Gulf of Aden littoral.[196] In the central regions, the country's northern mountain ranges give way to shallow plateaus and typically dry watercourses that are referred to locally as the Ogo. The Ogo's western plateau, in turn, gradually merges into the Haud, an important grazing area for livestock.[196]
Somalia has only two permanent rivers, the Jubba and Shabele, both of which begin in the Ethiopian Highlands. These rivers mainly flow southwards, with the Jubba River entering the Indian Ocean at Kismayo. The Shabele River at one time apparently used to enter the sea near Merca, but now reaches a point just southwest of Mogadishu. After that, it consists of swamps and dry reaches before finally disappearing in the desert terrain east of Jilib, near the Jubba River.[196]
Environment
Somalia is a semi-arid country with about 1.6% arable land.[1] The first local environmental organizations were Ecoterra Somalia and the Somali Ecological Society, both of which helped promote awareness about ecological concerns and mobilized environmental programs in all governmental sectors as well as in civil society. From 1971 onward, a massive tree-planting campaign on a nationwide scale was introduced by the Siad Barre government to halt the advance of thousands of acres of wind-driven sand dunes that threatened to engulf towns, roads and farm land.[199] By 1988, 265 hectares of a projected 336 hectares had been treated, with 39 range reserve sites and 36 forestry plantation sites established.[196] In 1986, the Wildlife Rescue, Research and Monitoring Centre was established by Ecoterra International, with the goal of sensitizing the public to ecological issues. This educational effort led in 1989 to the so-called "Somalia proposal" and a decision by the Somali government to adhere to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which established for the first time a worldwide ban on the trade of elephant ivory.
.jpg)
Later, Fatima Jibrell, a prominent Somali environmental activist, mounted a successful campaign to conserve old-growth forests of acacia trees in the northeastern part of Somalia.[200] These trees, which can live for 500 years, were being cut down to make charcoal which was highly in demand in the Arabian Peninsula, where the region's Bedouin tribes believe the acacia to be sacred.[200][201][202] Being a relatively inexpensive fuel, the production of charcoal often leads to deforestation and desertification.[202] As a way of addressing this problem, Jibrell and the Horn of Africa Relief and Development Organization (Horn Relief; now Adeso), an organization of which she was the founder and executive director, trained a group of teens to educate the public on the permanent damage that producing charcoal can create. In 1999, Horn Relief coordinated a peace march in the northeastern Puntland region of Somalia to put an end to the so-called "charcoal wars". As a result of Jibrell's lobbying and education efforts, the Puntland government in 2000 prohibited the exportation of charcoal. The government has also since enforced the ban, which has reportedly led to an 80% drop in exports of the product.[203] Jibrell was awarded the Goldman Environmental Prize in 2002 for her efforts against environmental degradation and desertification.[203] In 2008, she also won the National Geographic Society/Buffett Foundation Award for Leadership in Conservation.[204]
Following the massive tsunami of December 2004, there have also emerged allegations that after the outbreak of the Somali Civil War in the late 1980s, Somalia's long, remote shoreline was used as a dump site for the disposal of toxic waste. The huge waves that battered northern Somalia after the tsunami are believed to have stirred up tons of nuclear and toxic waste that might have been dumped illegally in the country by foreign firms.[205]
The European Green Party followed up these revelations by presenting before the press and the European Parliament in Strasbourg copies of contracts signed by two European companies — the Italian Swiss firm, Achair Partners, and an Italian waste broker, Progresso — and representatives of the then President of Somalia, the faction leader Ali Mahdi Mohamed, to accept 10 million tonnes of toxic waste in exchange for $80 million (then about £60 million).[205]
According to reports by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the waste has resulted in far higher than normal cases of respiratory infections, mouth ulcers and bleeding, abdominal haemorrhages and unusual skin infections among many inhabitants of the areas around the northeastern towns of Hobyo and Benadir on the Indian Ocean coast — diseases consistent with radiation sickness. UNEP adds that the situation along the Somali coastline poses a very serious environmental hazard not only in Somalia, but also in the eastern Africa sub-region.[205]
Climate
Owing to Somalia's proximity to the equator, there is not much seasonal variation in its climate. Hot conditions prevail year-round along with periodic monsoon winds and irregular rainfall. Mean daily maximum temperatures range from 30 to 40 °C (86 to 104 °F), except at higher elevations along the eastern seaboard, where the effects of a cold offshore current can be felt. In Mogadishu, for instance, average afternoon highs range from 28 to 32 °C (82 to 90 °F) in April. Some of the highest mean annual temperatures in the world have been recorded in the country; Berbera on the northwestern coast has an afternoon high that averages more than 38 °C (100 °F) from June through September. Nationally, mean daily minimums usually vary from about 15 to 30 °C (59 to 86 °F).[196] The greatest range in climate occurs in northern Somalia, where temperatures sometimes surpass 45 °C (113 °F) in July on the littoral plains and drop below the freezing point during December in the highlands.[189][196] In this region, relative humidity ranges from about 40% in the mid-afternoon to 85% at night, changing somewhat according to the season.[196] Unlike the climates of most other countries at this latitude, conditions in Somalia range from arid in the northeastern and central regions to semiarid in the northwest and south. In the northeast, annual rainfall is less than 100 mm (4 in); in the central plateaus, it is about 200 to 300 mm (8 to 12 in). The northwestern and southwestern parts of the nation, however, receive considerably more rain, with an average of 510 to 610 mm (20 to 24 in) falling per year. Although the coastal regions are hot and humid throughout the year, the hinterland is typically dry and hot.[196]
There are four main seasons around which pastoral and agricultural life revolve, and these are dictated by shifts in the wind patterns. From December to March is the Jilal, the harshest dry season of the year. The main rainy season, referred to as the Gu, lasts from April to June. This period is characterized by the southwest monsoons, which rejuvenate the pasture land, especially the central plateau, and briefly transform the desert into lush vegetation. From July to September is the second dry season, the Xagaa (pronounced "Hagaa"). The Dayr, which is the shortest rainy season, lasts from October to December.[196] The tangambili periods that intervene between the two monsoons (October–November and March–May) are hot and humid.[196]
Wildlife
Somalia contains a variety of mammals due to its geographical and climatic diversity. Wildlife still occurring includes cheetah, lion, reticulated giraffe, baboon, serval, elephant, bushpig, gazelle, ibex, kudu, dik-dik, oribi, Somali wild ass, reedbuck and Grévy's zebra, elephant shrew, rock hyrax, golden mole and antelope. It also has a large population of the dromedary camel.[206]
Somalia is home to around 727 species of birds. Of these, eight are endemic, one has been introduced by humans, and one is rare or accidental. Fourteen species are globally threatened. Birds species found exclusively in the country include the Somali Pigeon, Alaemon hamertoni (Alaudidae), Lesser Hoopoe-Lark, Heteromirafra archeri (Alaudidae), Archer's Lark, Mirafra ashi, Ash's Bushlark, Mirafra somalica (Alaudidae), Somali Bushlark, Spizocorys obbiensis (Alaudidae), Obbia Lark, Carduelis johannis (Fringillidae), and Warsangli Linnet.[207]
Somalia's territorial waters are prime fishing grounds for highly migratory marine species, such as tuna. A narrow but productive continental shelf contains several demersal fish and crustacean species.[208] Fish species found exclusively in the nation include Cirrhitichthys randalli (Cirrhitidae), Symphurus fuscus (Cynoglossidae), Parapercis simulata OC (Pinguipedidae), Cociella somaliensis OC (Platycephalidae), and Pseudochromis melanotus (Pseudochromidae).
There are roughly 235 species of reptiles. Of these, almost half live in the northern areas. Reptiles endemic to Somalia include the Hughes' saw-scaled viper, the Southern Somali garter snake, a racer (Platyceps messanai), a diadem snake (Spalerosophis josephscorteccii), the Somali sand boa, the angled worm lizard, a spiny-tailed lizard (Uromastyx macfadyeni), Lanza's agama, a gecko (Hemidactylus granchii), the Somali semaphore gecko, and a sand lizard (Mesalina or Eremias). A colubrid snake (Aprosdoketophis andreonei) and Haacke-Greer's skink (Haackgreerius miopus) are endemic species.[209]
Politics and government
.jpg)
Somalia is a parliamentary representative democratic republic. The President of Somalia is the head of state and commander-in-chief of the Somali Armed Forces and selects a Prime Minister to act as head of government.[210]
The Federal Parliament of Somalia is the national parliament of Somalia. The bicameral National Legislature consists of the House of the People (lower house) and the Senate (upper house), whose members are elected to serve four-year terms. The parliament elects the President, Speaker of Parliament and Deputy Speakers. It also has the authority to pass and veto laws.[211]
_(cropped).jpg)
The Judiciary of Somalia is defined by the Provisional Constitution of the Federal Republic of Somalia. Adopted on 1 August 2012 by a National Constitutional Assembly in Mogadishu,[212][213] the document was formulated by a committee of specialists chaired by attorney and Speaker of the Federal Parliament, Mohamed Osman Jawari.[214] It provides the legal foundation for the existence of the Federal Republic and source of legal authority.[215]
The national court structure is organized into three tiers: the Constitutional Court, Federal Government level courts and State level courts. A nine-member Judicial Service Commission appoints any Federal tier member of the judiciary. It also selects and presents potential Constitutional Court judges to the House of the People of the Federal Parliament for approval. If endorsed, the President appoints the candidate as a judge of the Constitutional Court. The five-member Constitutional Court adjudicates issues pertaining to the constitution, in addition to various Federal and sub-national matters.[215]
Somali law draws from a mixture of three different systems: civil law, Islamic law and customary law.[216]
According to 2023 V-Dem Democracy indices Somalia is the 5th least democratic country in Africa.[217]
After the collapse of Somalia in 1991, there were no relations or any contact between the Somaliland government, which declared itself a country, and the government of Somalia.[218][219]
Foreign relations
.jpg)
Somalia's foreign relations are handled by the President as the head of state, the Prime Minister as the head of government, and the federal Ministry of Foreign Affairs.[215]
According to Article 54 of the national constitution, the allocation of powers and resources between the Federal Government and the Federal Republic of Somalia's constituent Federal Member States shall be negotiated and agreed upon by the Federal Government and the Federal Member States, except in matters pertaining to foreign affairs, national defence, citizenship and immigration, and monetary policy. Article 53 also stipulates that the Federal Government shall consult the Federal Member States on major issues related to international agreements, including negotiations vis-a-vis foreign trade, finance and treaties.[215] The Federal Government maintains bilateral relations with a number of other central governments in the international community. Among these are Djibouti, Ethiopia, Egypt, the United Arab Emirates, Yemen, Turkey, Italy, the United Kingdom, Denmark, France, the United States, the People's Republic of China, Japan, Russian Federation and South Korea.
Additionally, Somalia has several diplomatic missions abroad. There are likewise various foreign embassies and consulates based in the capital Mogadishu and elsewhere in the country.
Somalia is also a member of many international organizations, such as the United Nations, African Union and Arab League. It was a founding member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation in 1969.[220] Other memberships include the African Development Bank, East African Community, Group of 77, Intergovernmental Authority on Development, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, International Civil Aviation Organization, International Development Association, International Finance Corporation, Non-Aligned Movement, World Federation of Trade Unions and World Meteorological Organization.
Military
The Somali Armed Forces (SAF) are the military forces of the Federal Republic of Somalia.[221] Headed by the President as Commander in Chief, they are constitutionally mandated to ensure the nation's sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity.[215]
The SAF was initially made up of the Army, Navy, Air Force, Police Force and the National Security Service.[222] In the post-independence period, it grew to become among the larger militaries on the continent.[148] The subsequent outbreak of the civil war in 1991 led to the disbandment of the Somali National Army.[223]
In 2004, the gradual process of reconstituting the military was put in motion with the establishment of the Transitional Federal Government (TFG). The Somali Armed Forces are now overseen by the Ministry of Defence of the Federal Government of Somalia, formed in mid-2012. In January 2013, the Somali federal government also re-opened the national intelligence service in Mogadishu, renaming the agency the National Intelligence and Security Agency (NISA).[224] The Somaliland and Puntland regional governments maintain their own security and police forces.
Human rights
Both male and female same-sex sexual activity are punishable by death within Somalia.[225] On October 3, 2020, a UN human rights investigator raised concerns over Somali government's backtracking of human rights commitments.[226]
Economy
According to the CIA and the Central Bank of Somalia, despite experiencing civil unrest, Somalia has maintained a healthy informal economy, based mainly on livestock, remittance/money transfer companies and telecommunications.[1][50] Owing to a dearth of formal government statistics and the recent civil war, it is difficult to gauge the size or growth of the economy. For 1994, the CIA estimated the GDP at $3.3 billion.[227] In 2001, it was estimated to be $4.1 billion.[228] By 2009, the CIA estimated that the GDP had grown to $5.731 billion, with a projected real growth rate of 2.6%.[1] According to a 2007 British Chambers of Commerce report, the private sector also grew, particularly in the service sector. Unlike the pre-civil war period when most services and the industrial sector were government-run, there has been substantial, albeit unmeasured, private investment in commercial activities; this has been largely financed by the Somali diaspora, and includes trade and marketing, money transfer services, transportation, communications, fishery equipment, airlines, telecommunications, education, health, construction and hotels.[229] Libertarian economist Peter Leeson attributes this increased economic activity to the Somali customary law (referred to as Xeer), which he suggests provides a stable environment to conduct business in.[230]
According to the Central Bank of Somalia, the country's GDP per capita as of 2012[update] is $226, a slight reduction in real terms from 1990. About 43% of the population lives on less than 1 US dollar a day, with around 24% of those found in urban areas and 54% living in rural areas.[50]
Somalia's economy consists of both traditional and modern production, with a gradual shift toward modern industrial techniques. Somalia has the largest population of camels in the world.[231] According to the Central Bank of Somalia, about 80% of the population are nomadic or semi-nomadic pastoralists, who keep goats, sheep, camels and cattle. The nomads also gather resins and gums to supplement their income.[50]
Agriculture
Agriculture is the most important economic sector of Somalia. It accounts for about 65% of the GDP and employs 65% of the workforce.[229] Livestock contributes about 40% to GDP and more than 50% of export earnings.[1] Other principal exports include fish, charcoal and bananas; sugar, sorghum and corn are products for the domestic market.[1] According to the Central Bank of Somalia, imports of goods total about $460 million per year, surpassing aggregate imports prior to the start of the civil war in 1991. Exports, which total about $270 million annually, have also surpassed pre-war aggregate export levels. Somalia has a trade deficit of about $190 million per year, but this is exceeded by remittances sent by Somalis in the diaspora, estimated to be about $1 billion.[50]
With the advantage of being located near the Arabian Peninsula, Somali traders have increasingly begun to challenge Australia's traditional dominance over the Gulf Arab livestock and meat market, offering quality animals at very low prices. In response, Gulf Arab states have started to make strategic investments in the country, with Saudi Arabia building livestock export infrastructure and the United Arab Emirates purchasing large farmlands.[232] Somalia is also a major world supplier of frankincense and myrrh.[233]
The modest industrial sector, based on the processing of agricultural products, accounts for 10% of Somalia's GDP.[1] According to the Somali Chamber of Commerce and Industry, over six private airline firms also offer commercial flights to both domestic and international locations, including Daallo Airlines, Jubba Airways, African Express Airways, East Africa 540, Central Air and Hajara.[234] In 2008, the Puntland government signed a multimillion-dollar deal with Dubai's Lootah Group, a regional industrial group operating in the Middle East and Africa. According to the agreement, the first phase of the investment is worth Dhs 170 m and will see a set of new companies established to operate, manage and build Bosaso's free trade zone and sea and airport facilities. The Bosaso Airport Company is slated to develop the airport complex to meet international standards, including a new 3,400 m (11,200 ft) runway, main and auxiliary buildings, taxi and apron areas, and security perimeters.[235]
Prior to the outbreak of the civil war in 1991, the roughly 53 state-owned small, medium and large manufacturing firms were foundering, with the ensuing conflict destroying many of the remaining industries. However, primarily as a result of substantial local investment by the Somali diaspora, many of these small-scale plants have re-opened and newer ones have been created. The latter include fish-canning and meat-processing plants in the northern regions, as well as about 25 factories in the Mogadishu area, which manufacture pasta, mineral water, confections, plastic bags, fabric, hides and skins, detergent and soap, aluminium, foam mattresses and pillows, fishing boats, carry out packaging, and stone processing.[236] In 2004, an $8.3 million Coca-Cola bottling plant also opened in the city, with investors hailing from various constituencies in Somalia.[237] Foreign investment also included multinationals including General Motors and Dole Fruit.[238]
Monetary and payment system
The Central Bank of Somalia is the official monetary authority of Somalia.[50] In terms of financial management, it is in the process of assuming the task of both formulating and implementing monetary policy.[239]
Owing to a lack of confidence in the local currency, the US dollar is widely accepted as a medium of exchange alongside the Somali shilling. Dollarization notwithstanding, the large issuance of the Somali shilling has increasingly fuelled price hikes, especially for low value transactions. According to the Central Bank, this inflationary environment is expected to come to an end as soon as the bank assumes full control of monetary policy and replaces the presently circulating currency introduced by the private sector.[239]
Although Somalia has had no central monetary authority for more than 15 years between the outbreak of the civil war in 1991 and the subsequent re-establishment of the Central Bank of Somalia in 2009, the nation's payment system is fairly advanced primarily due to the widespread existence of private money transfer operators (MTO) that have acted as informal banking networks.[240]
These remittance firms (hawalas) have become a large industry in Somalia, with an estimated US$1.6 billion annually remitted to the region by Somalis in the diaspora via money transfer companies.[1] Most are members of the Somali Money Transfer Association (SOMTA), an umbrella organization that regulates the community's money transfer sector, or its predecessor, the Somali Financial Services Association (SFSA).[241][242] The largest of the Somali MTOs is Dahabshiil, a Somali-owned firm employing more than 2,000 people across 144 countries with branches in London and Dubai.[242]
With a significant improvement in local security, Somali expatriates began returning to the country for investment opportunities. Coupled with modest foreign investment, the inflow of funds have helped the Somali shilling increase considerably in value. By March 2014, the currency had appreciated by almost 60% against the U.S. dollar over the previous 12 months. The Somali shilling was the strongest among the 175 global currencies traded by Bloomberg, rising close to 50 percentage points higher than the next most robust global currency over the same period.[243]
The Somalia Stock Exchange (SSE) is the national bourse of Somalia. It was founded in 2012 to attract investment from both Somali-owned firms and global companies in order to accelerate the ongoing post-conflict reconstruction process in Somalia.[244]
Energy and natural resources
The World Bank reports that electricity is now in large part supplied by local businesses.[229] Among these domestic firms is the Somali Energy Company, which performs generation, transmission and distribution of electric power.[245] In 2010, the nation produced 310 million kWh and consumed 288.3 million kWh of electricity, ranked 170th and 177th, respectively, according to the CIA.[1][needs update]
Somalia has reserves of several natural resources, including uranium, iron ore, tin, gypsum, bauxite, copper, salt and natural gas. The CIA reports that there are 5.663 billion cubic metres of proven natural gas reserves.[1]
The presence or extent of proven oil reserves in Somalia is uncertain. The CIA asserts that as of 2011[update] there are no proven reserves of oil in the country,[1] while UNCTAD suggests that most proven oil reserves in Somalia lie off its northwestern coast, in the Somaliland region.[246] An oil group listed in Sydney, Range Resources, estimates that the Puntland region in the northeast has the potential to produce 5 billion barrels (790×106 m3) to 10 billion barrels (1.6×109 m3) of oil,[247] compared to the 6.7 billion barrels of proven oil reserves in Sudan.[248] As a result of these developments, the Somalia Petroleum Corporation was established by the federal government.[249]
In the late 1960s, UN geologists also discovered major uranium deposits and other rare mineral reserves in Somalia. The find was the largest of its kind, with industry experts estimating that the amount of the deposits could amount to over 25% of the world's then known uranium reserves of 800,000 tons.[250] In 1984, the IUREP Orientation Phase Mission to Somalia reported that the country had 5,000 tons of uranium reasonably assured resources (RAR), 11,000 tons of uranium estimated additional resources (EAR) in calcrete deposits, as well as 0–150,000 tons of uranium speculative resources (SR) in sandstone and calcrete deposits.[251] Somalia evolved into a major world supplier of uranium, with American, UAE, Italian and Brazilian mineral companies vying for extraction rights. Link Natural Resources has a stake in the central region, and Kilimanjaro Capital has a stake in the 1,161,400 acres (470,002 ha) Amsas-Coriole-Afgoi (ACA) Block, which includes uranium exploration.[252]
The Trans-National Industrial Electricity and Gas Company is an energy conglomerate based in Mogadishu. It unites five major Somali companies from the trade, finance, security and telecommunications sectors, following a 2010 joint agreement signed in Istanbul to provide electricity and gas infrastructure in Somalia. With an initial investment budget of $1 billion, the company launched the Somalia Peace Dividend Project, a labour-intensive energy program aimed at facilitating local industrialization initiatives.
According to the Central Bank of Somalia, as the nation embarks on the path of reconstruction, the economy is expected not only to match its pre-civil war levels, but also to accelerate in growth and development due to Somalia's untapped natural resources.[50]
Telecommunications and media
After the start of the civil war, various new telecommunications companies began to spring up and compete to provide missing infrastructure. Funded by Somali entrepreneurs and backed by expertise from China, South Korea and Europe, these nascent telecommunications firms offer affordable mobile phone and Internet services that are not available in many other parts of the continent. Customers can conduct money transfers (such as through the popular Dahabshiil) and other banking activities via mobile phones, as well as easily gain wireless Internet access.[253]
After forming partnerships with multinational corporations such as Sprint, ITT and Telenor, these firms now offer the cheapest and clearest phone calls in Africa.[254] These Somali telecommunication companies also provide services to every city and town in Somalia. There are presently around 25 mainlines per 1,000 persons, and the local availability of telephone lines (tele-density) is higher than in neighbouring countries; three times greater than in adjacent Ethiopia.[236] Prominent Somali telecommunications companies include Golis Telecom Group, Hormuud Telecom, Somafone, Nationlink, Netco, Telcom and Somali Telecom Group. Hormuud Telecom alone grosses about $40 million a year. Despite their rivalry, several of these companies signed an inter-connectivity deal in 2005 that allows them to set prices, maintain and expand their networks, and ensure that competition does not get out of control.[253]
The state-run Somali National Television is the principal national public service TV channel. After a twenty-year hiatus, the station was officially re-launched on 4 April 2011.[255] Its radio counterpart Radio Mogadishu also broadcasts from the capital. Somaliland National TV and Puntland TV and Radio air from the northern regions.
Additionally, Somalia has several private television and radio networks. Among these are Horn Cable Television and Universal TV.[1] The political Xog Doon and Xog Ogaal and Horyaal Sports broadsheets publish out of the capital. There are also a number of online media outlets covering local news,[256] including Garowe Online, Wardheernews, and Puntland Post.
The internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Somalia is .so. It was officially relaunched on 1 November 2010 by .SO Registry, which is regulated by the nation's Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications.[257]
In November 2013, following a Memorandum of Understanding signed with Emirates Post in April of the year, the federal Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications officially reconstituted the Somali Postal Service (Somali Post).[258] In October 2014, the ministry also relaunched postal delivery from abroad.[259]
Tourism
Somalia has a number of local attractions, consisting of historical sites, beaches, waterfalls, mountain ranges and national parks. The tourist industry is regulated by the national Ministry of Tourism. The autonomous Puntland and Somaliland regions maintain their own tourism offices.[260] The Somali Tourism Association (SOMTA) also provides consulting services from within the country on the national tourist industry.[261] As of March 2015, the Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife of the South West State announced that it is slated to establish additional game reserves and wildlife ranges.[262] The United States Government recommends travelers to not travel to Somalia.[263]
Notable sights include the Laas Geel caves containing Neolithic rock art; the Cal Madow, Golis Mountains and Ogo Mountains; the Iskushuban and Lamadaya waterfalls; and the Hargeisa National Park, Jilib National Park, Kismayo National Park and Lag Badana National Park.
Transport
Somalia's network of roads is 22,100 km (13,700 mi) long. As of 2000[update], 2,608 km (1,621 mi) streets are paved and 19,492 km (12,112 mi) are unpaved.[1] A 750 km (470 mi) highway connects major cities in the northern part of the country, such as Bosaso, Galkayo and Garowe, with towns in the south.[264]
The Somali Civil Aviation Authority (SOMCAA) is Somalia's national civil aviation authority body. After a long period of management by the Civil Aviation Caretaker Authority for Somalia (CACAS), SOMCAA is slated to re-assume control of Somalia's airspace by 31 December 2013.
Sixty-two airports across Somalia accommodate aerial transportation; seven of these have paved runways. Among the latter, four airports have runways of over 3,047 metres (9,997 ft); two are between 2,438 and 3,047 m (7,999 and 9,997 ft) and one is 1,524 to 2,437 m (5,000 to 7,995 ft) long.[1] There are fifty-five airports with unpaved landing areas. One has a runway of over 3,047 m; four are between 2,438 m and 3,047 m in length; twenty are 1,524 m to 2,437 m; twenty-four are 914 m to 1,523 m; and six are under 914 metres (2,999 ft).[1] Major airports in the nation include the Aden Adde International Airport in Mogadishu, the Hargeisa International Airport in Hargeisa, the Kismayo Airport in Kismayo, the Baidoa Airport in Baidoa, and the Bender Qassim International Airport in Bosaso.
Established in 1964, Somali Airlines was the flag carrier of Somalia. It suspended operations during the civil war.[265][266] However, a reconstituted Somali government later began preparations in 2012 for an expected relaunch of the airline,[267] with the first new Somali Airlines aircraft scheduled for delivery by the end of December 2013.[268] According to the Somali Chamber of Commerce and Industry, the void created by the closure of Somali Airlines has since been filled by various Somali-owned private carriers. Over six of these private airline firms offer commercial flights to both domestic and international locations, including Daallo Airlines, Jubba Airways, African Express Airways, East Africa 540, Central Air and Hajara.[234]
Possessing the longest coastline on the continent,[15] Somalia has several major seaports. Maritime transport facilities are found in the port cities of Mogadishu, Bosaso, Berbera, Kismayo and Merca. There is also one merchant marine. Established in 2008, it is cargo-based.[1]
Demographics
| Population[16][17] | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Year | Million | ||
| 1950 | 2.3 | ||
| 2000 | 9.0 | ||
| 2021 | 17.1 | ||
Somalia lacks reliable population data.[269][270] The country had an estimated population of around 17.1 million inhabitants in 2021;[16][17] the total population according to the 1975 census was 3.3 million.[271] A United Nations Population Fund survey conducted in 2013 and 2014 estimated the total population to be 12,316,895.[272]
About 85% of local residents are ethnic Somalis,[1] who have historically inhabited the northern part of the country.[273] They have traditionally been organized into nomadic pastoral clans, loose empires, sultanates and city-states.[274] Civil strife in the early 1990s greatly increased the size of the Somali diaspora, as many of the best educated Somalis left the country.[275]
Non-Somali ethnic minority groups make up the remainder of Somalia's population, and are largely concentrated in the southern regions.[273] They include Bravanese, Bantus, Bajuni, Ethiopians (especially Oromos), Yemenis, Indians, Persians, Italians and Britons. The Bantus, the largest ethnic minority group in Somalia, are the descendants of slaves who were brought in from southeastern Africa by Arab and Somali traders.[276] In 1940, there were about 50,000 Italians living in Italian Somaliland.[277] Most Europeans left after independence, while a small number of Westerners are still present in Somalia mainly working for international organizations operating in Somalia.
A sizable Somali diaspora exists in various Western countries, such as the United States (particularly in the state of Minnesota) and in the United Kingdom (particularly in London), Sweden, Canada, Norway, the Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, Finland, Australia, Switzerland, Austria, and Italy, as well on the Arabian peninsula, and several African nations, such as Uganda and South Africa. The Somali diaspora is deeply involved in the politics and development of Somalia. The president of Somalia, Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed, was a former diaspora Somali and held US citizenship which he voluntarily renounced in 2019.[278][279]
Somalia's population is expanding at a growth rate of 1.75% per annum and a birth rate of 40.87 births per 1,000 people.[1] The total fertility rate of Somalia is 6.08 children born per woman (2014 estimates), the fourth highest in the world, according to the CIA World Factbook.[1] Most local residents are young, with a median age of 17.7 years; about 44% of the population is between the ages of 0–14 years, 52% is between the ages of 15–64 years, and only 2% is 65 years of age or older.[1] The gender ratio is roughly balanced, with proportionally about as many men as women.[1]
There is little reliable statistical information on urbanization in Somalia. Rough estimates have been made indicating a rate of urbanization of 4.8% per annum (2005–2010 est.), with many towns quickly growing into cities.[1] Many ethnic minorities have also moved from rural areas to urban centres since the onset of the civil war, particularly to Mogadishu and Kismayo.[280] As of 2008[update], 37.7% of the nation's population live in towns and cities, with the percentage rapidly increasing.[1]
Languages
Somali is the official language of Somalia while Arabic is a Second Language per the constitution.[215] The Somali language is the mother tongue of the Somali people, the nation's most populous ethnic group.[1] It is a member of the Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family, and its nearest relatives are the Oromo, Afar and Saho languages.[281] Somali is the best documented of the Cushitic languages,[282] with academic studies of it dating from before 1900.
Somali dialects are divided into three main groups: Northern, Benadir and Maay. Northern Somali (or Northern-Central Somali) forms the basis for Standard Somali. Benadir (also known as Coastal Somali) is spoken on the Benadir coast, from Adale to south of Merca including Mogadishu, as well as in the immediate hinterland. The coastal dialects have additional phonemes that do not exist in Standard Somali. Maay is principally spoken by the Digil and Mirifle (Rahanweyn) clans in the southern areas of Somalia.[283] Benadiri is the main dialect spoken in the country, in contrast to Northern Somali which is the main dialect spoken in Somaliland.[284]
A number of writing systems have been used over the years for transcribing the Somali language. Of these, the Somali alphabet is the most widely used, and has been the official writing script in Somalia since the Supreme Revolutionary Council formally introduced it in October 1972.[285] Other orthographies that have been used for centuries for writing Somali include the long-established Arabic script and Wadaad's writing. Indigenous writing systems developed in the 20th century include the Osmanya, Borama and Kaddare scripts.[286]
In addition to Somali, Arabic is an official national language in Somalia.[215] Around 2 million Somalis speak it[287] due to centuries-old ties with the Arab world, the far-reaching influence of the Arabic media, and religious education.[288][289][290]
English is widely spoken and taught. It used to be an administrative language in the British Somaliland protectorate and due to globalization is now also prominent across Somalia. English is the medium of instruction at many universities across Somalia,[291][292] and is one of the primary working languages of major NGOs operating in Somalia.[293][294][295][296] Italian was an official language in Italian Somaliland and during the trusteeship period, but its use significantly diminished following independence. It is now most frequently heard among older generations, government officials, and in educated circles.[288][287]
Other minority languages include Bravanese, a variant of the Bantu Swahili language that is spoken along the coast by the Bravanese people, as well as Kibajuni, a Swahili dialect that is the mother tongue of the Bajuni minority ethnic group.
Urban areas
Largest cities or towns in Somalia
. | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rank | Name | Region | Pop. | Rank | Name | Region | Pop. | ||
Mogadishu  Hargeisa |
1 | Mogadishu | Banaadir | 2,330,708[297][298] | 11 | Belad Weyne | Hiraan | 278,118 [297] |  Bossaso |
| 2 | Hargeisa | Woqooyi Galbeed | 1,346,651[297] | 12 | Hudun | Sool | 271,199[297] | ||
| 3 | Bossaso | Bari | 615,067[297] | 13 | Afgooye | Lower Shabelle | 265,684[297] | ||
| 4 | Borama | Awdal | 597,842[297] | 14 | Balcad | Middle Shabelle | 255,291[297] | ||
| 5 | Burco | Togdheer | 589,975[297] | 15 | Berbera | Woqooyi Galbeed | 251,189[297] | ||
| 6 | Baidoa | Bay | 546,957[297] | 16 | Laas Caanood | Sool | 246,020[297] | ||
| 7 | Gaalkacyo | Mudug | 501,542[297] | 17 | Kismayo | Lower Juba | 243,043[297] | ||
| 8 | Laasqoray | Sanaag | 343,101 [297] | 18 | Afmadow | Lower Juba | 231,017[297] | ||
| 9 | Garowe | Nugaal | 289,103[297] | 19 | Jowhar | Middle Shabelle | 221,044[297] | ||
| 10 | Qoriyoley | Lower Shabelle | 286,402[297] | 20 | Saacow | Middle Juba | 211,369[297] | ||
Religion
According to the Pew Research Center, 99.8% of Somalia's population is Muslim.[299] The majority belong to the Sunni branch of Islam and the Shafi'i school of Islamic jurisprudence.[21] Sufism, the mystical sect of Islam, is also well established, with many local jama'a (zawiya) or congregations of the various tariiqa or Sufi orders.[300] The constitution of Somalia likewise defines Islam as the state religion of the Federal Republic of Somalia, and Islamic sharia law as the basic source for national legislation. It also stipulates that no law that is inconsistent with the basic tenets of Shari'a can be enacted.[215]
Christianity is a minority religion in Somalia, with adherents representing less than 0.1% of the population in 2010 according to the Pew Research Center.[299] The number of Christians in Somalia is estimated at 1,000 people.[301] There is one Catholic diocese for the whole country, the Diocese of Mogadishu, which estimates that there were only about one hundred Catholic practitioners in 2004.[302]
In 1913, during the early part of the colonial era, there were virtually no Christians in the Somali territories, with only about 100–200 followers coming from the schools and orphanages of the few Catholic missions in the British Somaliland protectorate.[303] There were also no known Catholic missions in Italian Somaliland during the same period.[304] In the 1970s, during the reign of Somalia's then Marxist government, church-run schools were closed and missionaries sent home. There has been no archbishop in the country since 1989, and the cathedral in Mogadishu was severely damaged during the civil war. In December 2013, the Ministry of Justice and Religious Affairs also released a directive prohibiting the celebration of Christian festivities in the country.[305]
According to the Pew Research Center, less than 0.1% of Somalia's population in 2010 were adherents of folk religions.[299] These mainly consisted of some non-Somali ethnic minority groups in the southern parts of the country, who practice animism. In the case of the Bantu, these religious traditions were inherited from their ancestors in Southeast Africa.[306]
Additionally, according to the Pew Research Center, less than 0.1% of Somalia's population in 2010 were adherents of Judaism, Hinduism, Buddhism, or unaffiliated with any religion.[299]
Health
Until the collapse of the federal government in 1991, the organizational and administrative structure of Somalia's healthcare sector was overseen by the Ministry of Health. Regional medical officials enjoyed some authority, but healthcare was largely centralized. The socialist government of former President of Somalia Siad Barre had put an end to private medical practice in 1972.[307] Much of the national budget was devoted to military expenditure, leaving few resources for healthcare, among other services.[230]
Somalia's public healthcare system was largely destroyed during the ensuing civil war. As with other previously nationalized sectors, informal providers have filled the vacuum and replaced the former government monopoly over healthcare, with access to facilities witnessing a significant increase.[308] Many new healthcare centres, clinics, hospitals and pharmacies have in the process been established through home-grown Somali initiatives.[308] The cost of medical consultations and treatment in these facilities is low, at $5.72 per visit in health centres (with a population coverage of 95%), and $1.89–3.97 per outpatient visit and $7.83–13.95 per bed day in primary through tertiary hospitals.[309]
Comparing the 2005–2010 period with the half-decade just prior to the outbreak of the conflict (1985–1990), life expectancy actually increased from an average of 47 years for men and women to 48.2 years for men and 51 years for women.[310][311] Similarly, the number of one-year-olds fully immunized against measles rose from 30% in 1985–1990 to 40% in 2000–2005,[310][312] and for tuberculosis, it grew nearly 20% from 31% to 50% over the same period.[310][312]
The number of infants with low birth weight fell from 16 per 1,000 to 0.3, a 15% drop in total over the same time frame.[310][313] Between 2005 and 2010 as compared to the 1985–1990 period, infant mortality per 1,000 births also fell from 152 to 109.6.[310][311] Significantly, maternal mortality per 100,000 births fell from 1,600 in the pre-war 1985–1990 half-decade to 1,100 in the 2000–2005 period.[310][314] The number of physicians per 100,000 people also rose from 3.4 to 4 over the same time frame,[310][312] as did the percentage of the population with access to sanitation services, which increased from 18% to 26%.[310][312]
According to United Nations Population Fund data on the midwifery workforce, there is a total of 429 midwives (including nurse-midwives) in Somalia, with a density of one midwife per 1,000 live births. Eight midwifery institutions presently exist in the country, two of which are private. Midwifery is regulated by the government, and a license is required to practice professionally. A live registry is also in place to keep track of licensed midwives. In addition, midwives in the country are officially represented by a local midwives association, with 350 registered members.[315]
According to a 2005 World Health Organization estimate, about 97.9% of Somalia's women and girls underwent Female genital mutilation,[316] a pre-marital custom mainly endemic to the horn of Africa and parts of the Near East.[317][318] Encouraged by women in the community, it is primarily intended to protect chastity, deter promiscuity, and offer protection from assault.[319][320] By 2013, UNICEF in conjunction with the Somali authorities reported that the prevalence rate among 1- to 14-year-old girls in the autonomous northern Puntland and Somaliland regions had dropped to 25% following a social and religious awareness campaign.[321] About 93% of Somalia's male population is also reportedly circumcised.[322]
Somalia has one of the lowest HIV infection rates on the continent. This is attributed to the Muslim nature of Somali society and adherence of Somalis to Islamic morals.[323] While the estimated HIV prevalence rate in Somalia in 1987 (the first case report year) was 1% of adults,[323] a 2012 report from UNAIDS says that since 2004, estimates from 0.7% to 1.0% have been assumed.[324]
Although healthcare is now largely concentrated in the private sector, the country's public healthcare system is in the process of being rebuilt, and is overseen by the Ministry of Health. The Minister of Health is Qamar Adan Ali.[325] The autonomous Puntland region maintains its own Ministry of Health,[326] as does the Somaliland region in northwestern Somalia.[327]
Some of the prominent healthcare facilities in the country are East Bardera Mothers and Children's Hospital, Abudwak Maternity and Children's Hospital, Edna Adan Maternity Hospital and West Bardera Maternity Unit.
Education
The Ministry of Education is officially responsible for education in Somalia, and oversees the nation's primary, secondary, technical and vocational schools, as well as primary and technical teacher training and non-formal education. About 15% of the government's budget is allocated toward scholastic instruction.[328] The autonomous Puntland and Somaliland macro-regions maintain their own Ministries of Education.
Higher education in Somalia is now largely private. Several universities in the country, including Mogadishu University, have been scored among the 100 best universities in Africa in spite of the harsh environment, which has been hailed as a triumph for grass-roots initiatives.[236] Other universities also offering higher education in the south include Benadir University, the Somalia National University, Kismayo University and the University of Gedo. In Puntland, higher education is provided by the Puntland State University and East Africa University. In Somaliland, it is provided by Amoud University, the University of Hargeisa, Somaliland University of Technology and Burao University.
Qu'ranic schools (also known as dugsi quran or mal'aamad quran) remain the basic system of traditional religious instruction. Known as the most stable local, non-formal system of education providing basic religious and moral instruction, their strength rests on community support and their use of locally made and widely available teaching materials. The Qu'ranic system, which teaches the greatest number of students relative to other educational sub-sectors, is often the only system accessible to Somalis in nomadic as compared to urban areas. To address shortcomings in religious instruction, the Somali government on its own part also subsequently established the Ministry of Endowment and Islamic Affairs, under which Qur'anic education is now regulated.[329]
Culture
Cuisine
Somali cuisine is an intricate and diverse fusion of a multitude of culinary influences, drawing from the rich tapestry of Arab, Indian, and Italian flavours. This culinary tapestry is a direct result of Somalia's longstanding heritage of vibrant trade and bustling commerce.[330]
The essential components that form the foundation of Somali dishes encompass staples like rice and pasta, along with an extensive selection of meats ranging from lamb to beef and chicken. Aromatic spices such as cumin, cardamom, and coriander are frequently utilized to infuse dishes with tantalizing flavors.[331][332]
The culinary landscape of Somali cuisine also boasts an impressive assortment of hearty stews, traditional flatbreads, and delectable pastries, with highlights like the beloved "Canjeero/Lahooh," a delightful variation of the tangy fermented pancake-like flatbread that is savoured not only in Somalia but also in its neighbouring countries like Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Yemen.[333][334][335]
Additionally, a distinctive feature of Somali culinary tradition is the incorporation of camel meat and milk. They are considered a delicacy and serve as cherished and fundamental elements in the rich tapestry of Somali cuisine.[336]
Somali rice, the usual staple for dinner or lunch, is typically seasoned and mixed with various ingredients such as meat, vegetables, and, in a somewhat unique manner, raisins, adding a sweet note to the dish. Also, it is not uncommon for this dish to be presented in a visually appealing manner by incorporating multiple colors, as certain portions may be artificially tinted with shades of yellow or orange using saffron and other spices to enhance its aesthetic appeal.[337]
_and_fish_(kalluun),_Liver_(beerka)_with_vegetable_also_(Sabaayad)_pancakes.jpg)
An enduring testament to the influence of Italian colonial rule in Somalia is the widespread adoption of pasta and lasagne in the local culinary landscape, espicially in the south, showcasing how these dishes have integrated into the traditional diet alongside rice.[338][339]
Tea and coffee, both well-loved beverages, are also really popular. Among the early adopters of coffee consumption were the Somalis, who have the historical distinction of being among the first individuals documented to have enjoyed this stimulating drink. Additionally, Somali merchants played a pivotal role in the global coffee trade, being one of the first to export coffee beans.[340][341] The unique Somali coffee, known locally as 'Qahwo' and tea 'Shah', stand out due to their preparation method which involves a blend of various spices meticulously selected to enhance their rich and complex flavor profile.[342]
'Xalwo', which is closely associated with Omani 'Halwa', is a smooth jelly-like treat that is made with a blend of spices, seeds, nuts, and caramelized sugar.[343] This delightful confection is well-loved in Somalia and is commonly served together with Somali 'Qahwo'. After meals, homes are traditionally perfumed using frankincense or incense (unsi), which is prepared inside an incense burner referred to as a dabqaad.[344]
Music
Somalia has a rich musical heritage centred on traditional Somali folklore. Most Somali songs are pentatonic. Somali music might be mistaken for the sounds of nearby regions such as Ethiopia, Sudan or the Arabian Peninsula, but it is ultimately recognizable by its unique tunes and styles. Traditional instruments prominently featured in the music of Somalia include the oud lute. It is often accompanied by small drums and a reed flute in the background. Somali songs are usually the product of collaboration between lyricists (midho), songwriters (laxan) and singers (codka or "voice").[345]
Literature
The Somali community has been a source of many significant poets, writers, and Islamic figures over the years, a considerable proportion of whom have played a pivotal role in influencing and moulding the trajectory of Muslim scholarship and traditions, not just in the Horn of Africa but also reaching far into the Arabian Peninsula and other regions around the world. Somalia has also been called by, among others, the Canadian novelist and scholar Margaret Laurence, a "Nation of Poets" and a "Nation of Bards". Famed British explorer and writer Richard Burton eloquently wrote about Somalia:
"The country teems, with 'poets, poetasters, poetitoes, poetaccios': every man has his recognized position in literature as accurately defined as though he had been reviewed in a century of magazines – the fine ear of this people causing them to take the greatest pleasure in harmonious sounds and poetical expressions, whereas a false quantity or a prosaic phrase excite their violent indignation."[346]
Contemporary
With the adoption of the Latin alphabet in 1972 as the nation's standard orthography, numerous contemporary Somali authors have also released novels, some of which have received worldwide acclaim. Among these modern authors, Nuruddin Farah is the most renowned, receiving, among other honors, the 1998 Neustadt international prize for Literature.[14] Faarax M.J. Cawl is another notable Somali author who is famous for his novel set in the Dervish era, Ignorance is the enemy of love. Somali poetry also thrived during this era with Hadraawi gaining national renown for his prose and poetry.
Sports
Football is the most popular sport in Somalia. Important domestic competitions are the Somalia League and Somalia Cup, with the Somalia national football team playing internationally.
Basketball is also played in the country. The FIBA Africa Championship 1981 was hosted in Mogadishu from 15 to 23 December December 1981, during which the national basketball team received the bronze medal.[347]
In 2013, a Somalia national bandy team was formed in Borlänge. It participated in the Bandy World Championship 2014.
In the martial arts, Faisal Jeylani Aweys and Mohamed Deq Abdulle of the national taekwondo team took home a silver medal and fourth place, respectively, at the 2013 Open World Taekwondo Challenge Cup in Tongeren.[348] Additionally, Mohamed Jama has won both world and European titles in K-1 and Thai Boxing.[349]
Architecture
Somali architecture is a rich and diverse tradition of engineering and design. Spanning the country's ancient, medieval and early modern periods, it also embraces the fusion of Somalo-Islamic architecture with contemporary Western designs.
In ancient Somalia, pyramidical structures known in Somali as taalo were a popular burial style, with hundreds of these dry stone monuments scattered around the country today. Houses were built of dressed stone similar to the ones in ancient Egypt.[350] There are also examples of courtyards and large stone walls enclosing settlements, such as the Wargaade Wall.
The adoption of Islam in Somalia's early medieval history brought Islamic architectural influences from Arabia and Persia. This stimulated a shift in construction from dry stone and other related materials to coral stone, sun dried bricks, and the widespread use of limestone in Somali architecture. Many of the new architectural designs, such as mosques, were built on the ruins of older structures, a practice that would continue throughout the following centuries.[351]
See also
Notes
- ^ /səˈmɑːliə, soʊ-/ sə-MAH-lee-ə, soh-;[10][11][12] Somali: Soomaaliya [soːmaːlija], Osmanya script: 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘𐒕𐒖; Arabic: الصومال, romanized: aṣ-Ṣūmāl
- ^ [13] Somali: Jamhuuriyadda Federaalka Soomaaliya; Arabic: جمهورية الصومال الفيدرالية
- ^ Despite accusations of breaking rules, this map has been selected via an RfC on Talk:Somali Civil War. However, the RfC also concludes that if File:Somali Civil War Critical Threats.png ever gets an SVG variant, that should be used instead, So if you have the opportunity, please do that accordingly.
References
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai "Somalia". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 10 November 2021. Archived from the original on 25 January 2021. Retrieved 24 January 2021.
- ^ Lewis, I. M. (1998). Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar, and Saho. Red Sea Press. ISBN 978-1-56902-104-0.
- ^ a b c Encyclopedia Americana. Vol. 25. Americana Corporation. 1965. p. 255. Archived from the original on 23 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
- ^ Lewis, I. M. (1969). Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar and Saho. International African Institute. p. 140.
- ^ "World Bank Open Data". Archived from the original on 30 November 2023. Retrieved 4 April 2024.
- ^ "United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2022). World Population Prospects". population.un.org (online ed.). United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Archived from the original on 11 July 2022. Retrieved 16 July 2022.
- ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, April 2024 Edition. (Somalia)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 26 April 2024. Archived from the original on 4 March 2024. Retrieved 26 April 2024.
- ^ "Gini Index coefficient". The World Factbook. Retrieved 24 September 2024.
- ^ "Human Development Report 2023/24" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 March 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
- ^ Jones, Daniel (2003) [1917], Peter Roach; James Hartmann; Jane Setter (eds.), English Pronouncing Dictionary, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 3-12-539683-2
- ^ "Somalia". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster.
- ^ "Somalia". Dictionary.com Unabridged (Online). n.d.
- ^ "Federal Republic of Somalia" (PDF). somaliweyn.com. 2 October 2012. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 January 2013. Retrieved 20 February 2024.
- ^ a b "Somalia". Britannica. Archived from the original on 12 November 2021. Retrieved 11 January 2021.
- ^ a b c "Coastline". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 16 July 2017. Retrieved 3 August 2013.
- ^ a b c "World Population Prospects 2022". United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
- ^ a b c "World Population Prospects 2022: Demographic indicators by region, subregion and country, annually for 1950-2100" (XSLX) ("Total Population, as of 1 July (thousands)"). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
- ^ "World Bank Open Data". Archived from the original on 30 November 2023. Retrieved 4 April 2024.
- ^ Studies, American University (Washington, D.C. ) Foreign Area (1969). Area Handbook for Somalia: Co-authors: Irving Kaplan [et al.] Research and Writing Were Completed on June 15, 1969. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 235.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "Middle East Policy Council – Muslim Populations Worldwide". Mepc.org. 1 December 2005. Archived from the original on 14 December 2006. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
- ^ a b Abdullahi 2001, p. 1.
- ^ John Kenrick 1855) Phoenicia, B. Fellowes, p. 199.
- ^ Casson, Lionel (1984). Ancient Trade and Society. Mich. p. 235. ISBN 0-8143-1740-5. Archived from the original on 5 August 2016. Retrieved 25 May 2015.
- ^ a b Truhart, P. (1984). Regents of nations: systematic chronology of states and their political representatives in past and present : a biographical reference book. p. 72
- ^ Suárez, Jorge Alejandro. Geopolítica de lo Desconocido: Una visión diferente de la Política Internacional. p. 227. ISBN 979-8393720292.
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, inc, Encyclopædia Britannica, Vol. 1, (Encyclopædia Britannica: 2005), p. 163
- ^ Laitin 1977, p. 8
- ^ Abdisalam M. Issa-Salwe (1996). The Collapse of the Somali State: The Impact of the Colonial Legacy. London: Haan Associates. pp. 34–35. ISBN 1-874209-91-X.
- ^ a b The Illustrated Library of The World and Its Peoples: Africa, North and East, Greystone Press: 1967, p. 338.
- ^ Kapteijns, Lidwien (2012). Clan Cleansing in Somalia: The Ruinous Legacy of 1991. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-0758-3. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 13 July 2021.
- ^ "Council on Foreign Relations". Archived from the original on 9 May 2018. Retrieved 26 February 2022.
- ^ Jeffrey Gettleman (23 June 2011). "Harvard-Educated Technocrat Chosen as Somalia Premier". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 28 November 2018. Retrieved 23 June 2011.
- ^ Samatar, Abdi Ismail (2007). "Ethiopian Invasion of Somalia, US Warlordism & AU Shame". Review of African Political Economy. 34 (111): 155–165. ISSN 0305-6244. JSTOR 20406369.
- ^ a b Mueller, Jason C. (2 January 2018). "The Evolution of Political Violence: The Case of Somalia's Al-Shabaab". Terrorism and Political Violence. 30 (1): 116–141. doi:10.1080/09546553.2016.1165213. ISSN 0954-6553. S2CID 148494845.
- ^ Cook, Joana; Maher, Shiraz, eds. (2023). The Rule Is For None But Allah. Oxford University Press. p. 111. ISBN 9780197690390.
- ^ Samatar, Abdi Ismail (2013), Bereketeab, Redie (ed.), "The Production of Somali Conflict and the Role of Internal and External Actors", The Horn of Africa, Intra-State and Inter-State Conflicts and Security, Pluto Press, pp. 156–177, doi:10.2307/j.ctt183p650.14, ISBN 978-0-7453-3311-3, JSTOR j.ctt183p650.14, retrieved 11 January 2024
- ^ Rice, Xan (29 December 2008). "Somali president resigns amid power struggle". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 23 September 2024.
- ^ "Moderate Islamist picked as Somali president". CNN. January 31, 2009. Archived from the original on February 2, 2009. Retrieved July 9, 2011.
- ^ a b c Muddassar Ahmed (8 August 2012). "Somalia rising after two decades of civil war and unrest". Al Arabiya. Archived from the original on 10 August 2012. Retrieved 9 August 2012.
- ^ "Somalia's al-Shabab join al-Qaeda". BBC News. 10 February 2012. Retrieved 16 November 2024.
- ^ a b "Al-Shabab". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on 2 February 2021. Retrieved 13 February 2022.
- ^ a b "Somalia conflict: Al-Shabab 'collects more revenue than government'". BBC News. 26 October 2020. Archived from the original on 28 September 2022. Retrieved 13 February 2022.
- ^ "Kenyan troops seize al-Shabaab base in Somalia". www.aa.com.tr. Archived from the original on 30 September 2023. Retrieved 13 February 2022.
- ^ "Somalia: Somali Leaders Adopt Draft Constitution". ANP/AFP. Archived from the original on 24 June 2012. Retrieved 23 June 2012.
- ^ "Somali leaders back new constitution". BBC News. 1 August 2012. Archived from the original on 11 October 2020. Retrieved 2 August 2012.
- ^ "Somalia's newly-endorsed constitution widely hailed". Xinhua News Agency. Archived from the original on 7 October 2013. Retrieved 2 August 2012.
- ^ a b c "Somalia: UN Envoy Says Inauguration of New Parliament in Somalia 'Historic Moment'". Forum on China-Africa Cooperation. 21 August 2012. Archived from the original on 14 October 2012. Retrieved 24 August 2012.
- ^ Dinfin Mulupi (21 June 2012). "Mogadishu: East Africa's newest business destination?". Archived from the original on 27 June 2012. Retrieved 26 June 2012.
- ^ "LDCs at a Glance | Department of Economic and Social Affairs". www.un.org. Archived from the original on 29 March 2022. Retrieved 12 February 2023.
- ^ a b c d e f g "Central Bank of Somalia – Economy and Finance". Somalbanca.org. Archived from the original on 24 January 2009. Retrieved 30 December 2010.
- ^ "Member States". United Nations. Archived from the original on 13 September 2022. Retrieved 27 August 2021.
- ^ "Member States". League of Arab States (in Arabic). Archived from the original on 8 October 2023. Retrieved 27 August 2021.
- ^ "Member State Profiles". African Union. Archived from the original on 7 November 2017. Retrieved 27 August 2021.
- ^ "Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) | What is the Non-Aligned Movement?". Nuclear Threat Initiative. Archived from the original on 18 August 2021. Retrieved 27 August 2021.
- ^ "Somalia joins East African Community". 24 November 2023. Archived from the original on 26 November 2023. Retrieved 25 November 2023.
- ^ "Member States". Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Archived from the original on 20 November 2022. Retrieved 27 August 2021.
- ^ a b Phillipson, D. W. (2005). African Archaeology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-54002-5. Archived from the original on 18 May 2024. Retrieved 19 October 2020.
- ^ Peter Robertshaw (1990). A History of African Archaeology. J. Currey. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-435-08041-9.
- ^ Gutherz, Xavier; Diaz, Amélie; Ménard, Clément; Bon, François; Douze, Katja; Léa, Vanessa; Lesur, Joséphine; Sordoillet, Dominiqu e (September 2014). "The Hargeisan revisited: Lithic industries from shelter 7 of Laas Geel, Somaliland and the transition between the Middle and Late Stone Age in the Horn of Africa". Quaternary International. 343: 69–84. Bibcode:2014QuInt.343...69G. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2014.04.038. ISSN 1040-6182.
- ^ Clark, J. D. (2013). The Prehistoric Cultures of the Horn of Africa: An Analysis of the Stone Age Cultural and Climatic Succession in the Somalilands and Eastern Parts of Abyssinia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-63536-4. Archived from the original on 18 May 2024. Retrieved 19 October 2020.
- ^ Delson, Eric; Tattersall, Ian; Couvering, John Van; Brooks, Alison S. (2004). Encyclopedia of Human Evolution and Prehistory (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-58228-9. Archived from the original on 18 May 2024. Retrieved 23 August 2020.
- ^ Petraglia, Michael D.; Rose, Jeffrey I. (2009). The Evolution of Human Populations in Arabia: Paleoenvironments, Prehistory and Genetics. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-90-481-2719-1. Archived from the original on 18 May 2024. Retrieved 19 October 2020.
- ^ Brandt, S. A. (1988). "Early Holocene Mortuary Practices and Hunter-Gatherer Adaptations in Southern Somalia". World Archaeology. 20 (1): 40–56. doi:10.1080/00438243.1988.9980055. JSTOR 124524. PMID 16470993.
- ^ H. W. Seton-Karr (1909). "Prehistoric Implements From Somaliland". Man. 9 (106): 182–183. doi:10.2307/2840281. JSTOR 2840281. Retrieved 30 January 2011.
- ^ Zarins, Juris (1990), "Early Pastoral Nomadism and the Settlement of Lower Mesopotamia", (Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research)
- ^ Diamond, J; Bellwood, P (2003). "Farmers and Their Languages: The First Expansions". Science. 300 (5619): 597–603. Bibcode:2003Sci...300..597D. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.218.8905. doi:10.1126/science.1078208. PMID 12714734. S2CID 13350469.
- ^ Bakano, Otto (24 April 2011). "Grotto galleries show early Somali life". Agence France-Presse. Archived from the original on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 11 May 2013.
- ^ Mire, Sada (2008). "The Discovery of Dhambalin Rock Art Site, Somaliland". African Archaeological Review. 25 (3–4): 153–168. doi:10.1007/s10437-008-9032-2. S2CID 162960112. Archived from the original on 27 June 2013. Retrieved 22 June 2013.
- ^ Alberge, Dalya (17 September 2010). "UK archaeologist finds cave paintings at 100 new African sites". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 17 September 2013. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
- ^ Hodd, Michael (1994). East African Handbook. Trade & Travel Publications. p. 640. ISBN 0-8442-8983-3. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
- ^ Ali, Ismail Mohamed (1970). Somalia Today: General Information. Ministry of Information and National Guidance, Somali Democratic Republic. p. 295. Archived from the original on 18 May 2024. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
- ^ a b c Njoku, Raphael Chijioke (2013). The History of Somalia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 29–31. ISBN 978-0-313-37857-7. Archived from the original on 18 May 2024. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
- ^ Dalal, Roshen (2011). The Illustrated Timeline of the History of the World. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 131. ISBN 978-1-4488-4797-6. Archived from the original on 23 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
- ^ Abdel Monem A. H. Sayed (2003). Zahi A. Hawass (ed.). Egyptology at the Dawn of the Twenty-first Century: Archaeology. American Univ in Cairo Press. pp. 432–433. ISBN 977-424-674-8. Archived from the original on 18 May 2024. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
- ^ a b The Geography of Herodotus: Illustrated from Modern Researches and Discoveries by James Talboys Wheeler, pg 1xvi, 315, 526
- ^ a b John Kitto, James Taylor, The popular cyclopædia of Biblical literature: condensed from the larger work, (Gould and Lincoln: 1856), p. 302.
- ^ Suzanne Richard (2003) Near Eastern archaeology: a reader Archived 23 January 2023 at the Wayback Machine, Eisenbrauns, p. 120 ISBN 1-57506-083-3.
- ^ Warmington 1995, p. 54.
- ^ a b Warmington 1995, p. 229.
- ^ Warmington 1995, p. 187.
- ^ Warmington 1995, pp. 185–186.
- ^ Briggs, Phillip (2012). Somaliland. Bradt Travel Guides. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-84162-371-9.
- ^ I. M. Lewis (1955). Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar and Saho. International African Institute. p. 140.
- ^ Africanus, Leo (1526). The History and Description of Africa. Hakluyt Society. pp. 51–54. Retrieved 2 January 2017.
- ^ Lewis, Ioan M. (1994). Blood and Bone: The Call of Kinship in Somali Society. Lawrencewill, NJ: The Red Sea Press. pp. 102–106. ISBN 0-932415-93-8.
- ^ M. Th. Houtsma (1987). E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936. Brill. pp. 125–126. ISBN 90-04-08265-4. Archived from the original on 23 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
- ^ Nizar Hamzeh, A.; Hrair Dekmejian, R. (2010). "A Sufi Response to Political Islamism: Al-Abāsh of Lebanon". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 28 (2): 217–229. doi:10.1017/S0020743800063145. S2CID 154765577.
- ^ Briggs, Philip (2012). Bradt Somaliland: With Addis Ababa & Eastern Ethiopia. Bradt Travel Guides. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-84162-371-9. Archived from the original on 23 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
- ^ a b Lewis, I. M. (1999). A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa. James Currey Publishers. p. 17. ISBN 0-85255-280-7. Archived from the original on 23 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
- ^ Lewis, I.M. (1999) A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa, LIT Verlag Münster, p. 17, ISBN 3-8258-3084-5.
- ^ Fage, John Donnelly; Oliver, Roland Anthony (1970). Papers in African Prehistory. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-09566-2.
- ^ E. G. Ravenstein (2010). A Journal of the First Voyage of Vasco Da Gama, 1497–1499. Cambridge University Press. p. 88. ISBN 978-1-108-01296-6. Archived from the original on 23 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
- ^ Joussaume, Roger (1976). "Fouille d'un tumulus à Ganda Hassan Abdi dans les monts du Harar" (PDF). Annales d'Ethiopie. 10: 25–39. doi:10.3406/ethio.1976.1157.[permanent dead link]
- ^ Braukämper, Ulrich (2002). Islamic History and Culture in Southern Ethiopia: Collected Essays. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 18. ISBN 978-3-8258-5671-7.
- ^ Sir Reginald Coupland (1965) East Africa and its invaders: from the earliest times to the death of Seyyid Said in 1856, Russell & Russell, p. 38.
- ^ Edward A. Alpers (2009). East Africa and the Indian Ocean. Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 79. ISBN 978-1-55876-453-8. Archived from the original on 23 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
- ^ Nigel Harris (2003). The Return of Cosmopolitan Capital: Globalization, the State and War. I.B. Tauris. pp. 22–. ISBN 978-1-86064-786-4. Archived from the original on 23 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
- ^ R. J. Barendse (2002). The Arabian Seas: The Indian Ocean world of the Seventeenth Century /c R.J. Barendse. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 343–. ISBN 978-0-7656-0729-4.
- ^ Alpers 1976.
- ^ Caroline Sassoon (1978) Chinese Porcelain Marks from Coastal Sites in Kenya: Aspects of Trade in the Indian Ocean, XIV–XIX Centuries, Vol. 43–47, British Archaeological Reports, p. 2, ISBN 0-86054-018-9.
- ^ Sir Reginald Coupland (1965) East Africa and Its Invaders: From the Earliest Times to the Death of Seyyid Said in 1856, Russell & Russell, p. 37.
- ^ Edward A. Alpers (2009). East Africa and the Indian Ocean. Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-55876-453-8. Archived from the original on 23 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
- ^ a b Ylönen, Aleksi Ylönen (2023). The Horn Engaging the Gulf Economic Diplomacy and Statecraft in Regional Relations. Bloomsbury. p. 113. ISBN 9780755635191.
- ^ Arafat, S. M. Yasir (2024). Suicidal Behavior in Muslim Majority Countries: Epidemiology, Risk Factors, and Prevention. Springer Nature. pp. 273–274. ISBN 978-981-97-2519-9.
- ^ I. M. Lewis, A pastoral democracy: a study of pastoralism and politics among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa, (LIT Verlag Münster: 1999), p. 157.
- ^ "Taariikhda Beerta Suldaan Cabdilaahi ee Hargeysa | Somalidiasporanews.com" (in Somali). Archived from the original on 19 February 2021. Retrieved 9 January 2021.
- ^ Genealogies of the Somal. Eyre and Spottiswoode (London). 1896.
- ^ "Taariikhda Saldanada Reer Guuleed Ee Somaliland.Abwaan:Ibraahim-rashiid Cismaan Guure (aboor). | Togdheer News Network". Archived from the original on 11 January 2021. Retrieved 9 August 2021.
- ^ "Degmada Cusub Ee Dacarta Oo Loogu Wanqalay Munaasibad Kulmisay Madaxda Iyo Haldoorka Somaliland". Hubaal Media (in Somali). 7 October 2017. Archived from the original on 11 August 2021. Retrieved 11 August 2021.
- ^ "Taariikhda Toljecle". www.tashiwanaag.com. Archived from the original on 9 August 2021. Retrieved 9 August 2021.
- ^ Taariikhda Boqortooyadii Axmed Sheikh Isaxaaq ee Toljecle 1787, 23 February 2020, archived from the original on 11 December 2021, retrieved 15 August 2021
- ^ New Issues in Refugee Research Working Paper No. 65 Pastoral society and transnational refugees: population movements in Somaliland and eastern Ethiopia 1988–2000 Guido Ambroso, Table 1, p. 5
- ^ a b Langers Encyclopedia of World History, 594.
- ^ Mariam Arif Gassem, Somalia: clan vs. nation (s.n.: 2002), p. 4
- ^ a b Oliver, Roland Anthony (1976). History of East Africa. Vol. 2. Clarendon Press. p. 7.
- ^ Kevin Shillington, Encyclopedia of African History (CRC Press, 2005), p. 1406.
- ^ "The fight in Somaliland". Rhyl Record and Advertiser. 2 January 1904. Archived from the original on 5 June 2021. Retrieved 6 June 2021 – via newspapers.library.wales.
- ^ Kevin Shillington, Encyclopedia of African history, (CRC Press: 2005), p. 1406.
- ^ Samatar 1982, pp. 131, 135.
- ^ Roland Anthony (2007). Somalia in Pictures. Twenty-First Century Books. p. 28. ISBN 9780822565864.
- ^ a b Paolo Tripodi (1999). The Colonial Legacy in Somalia: Rome and Mogadishu: From Colonial Administration to Operation Restore Hope. Macmillan Press. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-312-22393-9. Archived from the original on 23 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
- ^ a b Zolberg, Suhrke & Aguayo 1989, p. 106
- ^ Kwame Anthony Appiah; Henry Louis Gates (2003). Africana: the encyclopedia of the African and African American experience: the concise desk reference. Running Press. p. 1749. ISBN 978-0-7624-1642-4. Archived from the original on 23 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
- ^ Helen Chapin Metz, ed. (1992) Somalia: A Country Study Archived 5 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress.
- ^ Federal Research Division (2004) Somalia: A Country Study, Kessinger Publishing, LLC, p. 38, ISBN 1-4191-4799-4.
- ^ Laitin 1977, p. 73.
- ^ Francis Vallat (1974) First report on succession of states in respect of treaties: International Law Commission twenty-sixth session 6 May – 26 July 1974, United Nations, p. 20
- ^ Laitin 1977, p. 75.
- ^ Rousseau, David Laurent (1996). Domestic political institutions and the evolution of international conflict. University of Michigan. p. 231. ISBN 9780591309287. Archived from the original on 1 November 2017. Retrieved 24 September 2016.
- ^ a b c Schraeder 2006, p. 115
- ^ Kevin Shillington (2005) Encyclopedia of African history, CRC Press, p. 360, ISBN 1-57958-245-1.
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, The New Encyclopædia Britannica, (Encyclopædia Britannica: 2002), p. 835
- ^ "The dawn of the Somali nation-state in 1960". Buluugleey.com. Archived from the original on 16 January 2009. Retrieved 25 February 2009.
- ^ "The making of a Somalia state". Strategypage.com. 9 August 2006. Archived from the original on 2 July 2016. Retrieved 25 February 2009.
- ^ "The 1961 Referendum" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 October 2015.
- ^ https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/LOC-HAK-510-5-8-1.pdf
- ^ L. Daniels, Christopher (2012). Somali Piracy and Terrorism in the Horn of Africa. Scarecrow Press. p. 12. ISBN 9780810883109.
- ^ Adan Sheikh, Mohamed (1991). Arrivederci a Mogadiscio (in Italian). Edizioni associate. p. 76. ISBN 9788826700700.
- ^ Hussein Mohamed Adam; Richard Ford (1997). Mending rips in the sky: options for Somali communities in the 21st century. Red Sea Press. p. 226. ISBN 1-56902-073-6. Archived from the original on 23 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
- ^ J. D. Fage, Roland Anthony Oliver (1985) The Cambridge history of Africa, Vol. 8, Cambridge University Press, p. 478, ISBN 0-521-22409-8.
- ^ a b The Encyclopedia Americana: complete in thirty volumes. Skin to Sumac, Vol. 25, Grolier: 1995, p. 214, ISBN 0-7172-0126-0.
- ^ a b c de la Fosse Wiles, Peter John (1982) The New Communist Third World: an essay in political economy Archived 23 January 2023 at the Wayback Machine, Taylor & Francis, p. 279 ISBN 0-7099-2709-6.
- ^ Irving, Kaplan (1977). Area Handbook for Somalia. Vol. 550. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 116.
- ^ Chijioke Njoku, Raphael. The History of Somalia. ABC-CLIO. p. 111. ISBN 9780313378584.
- ^ Benjamin Frankel (1992) The Cold War, 1945–1991: Leaders and other important figures in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, China, and the Third World, Gale Research, p. 306 ISBN 0-8103-8928-2.
- ^ Oihe Yang (2000) Africa South of the Sahara 2001, 30th ed., Taylor and Francis, p. 1025 ISBN 1-85743-078-6.
- ^ Gebru Tareke 2009, pp. 182–186. The areas concerned amount to about a third of Ethiopia.
- ^ a b Oliver Ramsbotham; Tom Woodhouse (1999). Encyclopedia of international peacekeeping operations. ABC-CLIO. p. 222. ISBN 0-87436-892-8.
- ^ "Somalia — Government". Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 4 July 2014. Retrieved 15 February 2014.
- ^ Compagnon, Daniel (22 October 2013). "State-sponsored violence and conflict under Mahamed Siyad Barre: the emergence of path dependent patterns of violence". World Peace Foundation, The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy. Archived from the original on 2 October 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
- ^ "Somalia: Information on the capture of the town of Belet Uen by the United Somali Congress (USC) at the end of 1990 or early 1991 and on persecution of Darod in Belet Uen by USC soldiers". webarchive.archive.unhcr.org. Canada: Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada. 1 November 1992. Archived from the original on 24 April 2024. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
- ^ "Human Rights Watch World Report 1989 – Somalia". Refwolrd. Somalia: Human Rights Watch. 1 January 1990. Archived from the original on 24 April 2024. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
- ^ "One in four people in Somalia have now fled their homes". reliefweb. Islamic Relief. 31 August 2023. Archived from the original on 11 February 2024. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
- ^ Yuusuf, Muuse (2022). The Genesis of the Civil War in Somalia: The Impact of Foreign Military Intervention on the Conflict. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 121. ISBN 9780755642410.
- ^ Focus on the Horn, Issues 7–9. Horn of Africa Information Committee. 1989. p. 37.
- ^ Columbia University, School of International Affairs, Journal of international affairs, Vol. 40 (1986), p. 165.
- ^ "Somaliland citizens ask to be recognized as a state". BBC News. 4 June 2001. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 25 February 2009.
- ^ "Somaliland votes for independence". BBC News. 31 May 2001. Archived from the original on 9 February 2018. Retrieved 25 February 2009.
- ^ Al J. Venter (1975) Africa Today, p. 152, ISBN 0-86954-023-8
- ^ Library Information and Research Service, The Middle East: Abstracts and index, Vol. 2, (Library Information and Research Service: 1999), p. 327.
- ^ a b Paul Fricska, Szilard. "Harbinger of a New World Order? Humanitarian Intervention in Somalia" (PDF). University of British Columbia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 March 2012. Retrieved 6 October 2013.
- ^ "Somalia: Some key actors in the transitional process". IRIN. 6 May 2005. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 7 February 2007.
- ^ Anderson, Jon Lee (14 December 2009). "The Most Failed State". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 27 February 2023. Retrieved 19 May 2015.
- ^ Fergusson, James (13 January 2013). "Somalia: A failed state is back from the dead". The Independent. Archived from the original on 12 November 2017. Retrieved 2 May 2015.
- ^ Albright, Madeleine K. (10 August 1993). "Yes, There Is a Reason to Be in Somalia". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 23 May 2015. Retrieved 22 May 2015.
- ^ "Somalia". The World Factbook. Langley, Virginia: Central Intelligence Agency. 2014. Archived from the original on 1 July 2014. Retrieved 8 April 2014.
- ^ "TNG Prime Minister Concludes Formation of Cabinet". 31 December 2003. Archived from the original on 21 September 2004. Retrieved 8 April 2014.
- ^ ":: Xinhuanet – English". Archived from the original on 21 November 2004.
- ^ "Somalia". The World Factbook. Langley, Virginia: Central Intelligence Agency. 2014. Archived from the original on 1 July 2014. Retrieved 5 October 2011.
- ^ "Somalia Mourns a 'Golden Era' as Crisis Worsens | Africa Faith and Justice Network". afjn.org. 11 December 2007. Archived from the original on 4 September 2021. Retrieved 4 September 2021.
- ^ Gettleman, Jeffrey (20 November 2007). "As Somali Crisis Swells, Experts See a Void in Aid". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 4 September 2021. Retrieved 4 September 2021.
- ^ "Ethiopian Invasion of Somalia". Globalpolicy.org. 14 August 2007. Archived from the original on 10 September 2009. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
- ^ a b "Somalia President, Parliament Speaker dispute over TFG term". Garoweonline.com. 12 January 2011. Archived from the original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 12 June 2011.
- ^ "USCIRF Annual Report 2009 – The Commission's Watch List: Somalia". United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. 1 May 2009. Archived from the original on 10 May 2011. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
- ^ "Somalia: Guide to Puntland Election 2009". Garoweonline.com. 25 December 2008. Archived from the original on 28 September 2013. Retrieved 12 June 2011.
- ^ "Opening Annual General Assembly Debate, Secretary-General Urges Member States to Press in Tackling Poverty, Terrorism, Human Rights Abuses, Conflicts". Unis.unvienna.org. Archived from the original on 27 July 2020. Retrieved 12 June 2011.
- ^ "Somalia's president quits office" Archived 13 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine, BBC News, 29 December 2008.
- ^ "Somali President Yusuf resigns" Archived 31 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Reuters (FT.com), 29 December 2008.
- ^ Kamaal (22 May 2010). "UN boss urges support for Somalia ahead of Istanbul summit". Horseedmedia.net. Archived from the original on 28 September 2013. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
- ^ "Islamists break Somali port truce". BBC News. 21 October 2009. Archived from the original on 26 October 2009. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
- ^ Shariah in Somalia Archived 27 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine – Arab News
- ^ "Joint Communique – Operation Linda Nchi". Kenya High Commission, Tanzania. Archived from the original on 16 August 2012. Retrieved 25 September 2013.
- ^ "The Kenyan Military Intervention in Somalia" (PDF). International Crisis Group. 15 February 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
- ^ Clar Ni Chonghaile (28 September 2012). "Kenyan troops launch beach assault on Somali city of Kismayo". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 29 September 2013. Retrieved 28 September 2012.
- ^ "Analysis of EUCAP Nestor by the Global Governance Institute". Global Governance Institute. 26 July 2012. Archived from the original on 2 April 2013.
- ^ "SOMALIA: President says Godane is dead, now is the chance for the members of al-Shabaab to embrace peace". Raxanreeb. 5 September 2014. Archived from the original on 6 September 2014. Retrieved 6 September 2014.
- ^ "Somalia". World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 14 May 2009. Archived from the original on 1 July 2016. Retrieved 31 May 2009.
- ^ Ganzglass, Martin R. "The Somali Refugees-Africa's Open Wound Refuses to Heal." Hum. Rts. 8 (1979): 28.
- ^ a b "Somalia – Climate". countrystudies.us. 14 May 2009. Archived from the original on 5 August 2011. Retrieved 14 May 2009.
- ^ "Somalia Flooding: Population Density with Baseline Population by District (26 Dec 2023)". Reliefweb. 26 December 2023.
- ^ "The population of the pre-war regions and districts of Somalia according to estimates and calculations". citypopulation. 2 May 2021. Archived from the original on 4 April 2024. Retrieved 5 April 2024.
- ^ "International community welcomes newly-elected President of Somalia's Interim South West Administration". Goobjoog. 19 November 2014. Archived from the original on 9 January 2015. Retrieved 5 January 2015.
- ^ "Adado conference kicks off in central Somalia". Garowe Online. 16 April 2015. Archived from the original on 11 August 2015. Retrieved 15 May 2015.
- ^ "The Federal Republic of Somalia – Harmonized Draft Constitution" (PDF). Federal Government of Somalia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 January 2013. Retrieved 2 August 2012.
- ^ "Guidebook to the Somali Draft Provisional Constitution". Archived from the original on 20 January 2013. Retrieved 2 August 2012.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Hadden, Robert Lee. 2007. "The Geology of Somalia: A Selected Bibliography of Somalian Geology, Geography and Earth Science". Engineer Research and Development Laboratories, Topographic Engineering Center
- ^ International Traffic Network, The world trade in sharks: a compendium of Traffic's regional studies, (Traffic International: 1996), p. 25.
- ^ Dinerstein, Eric; et al. (2017). "An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm". BioScience. 67 (6): 534–545. doi:10.1093/biosci/bix014. ISSN 0006-3568. PMC 5451287. PMID 28608869.
- ^ National Geographic, Vol. 159, National Geographic Society, 1981, p. 765.
- ^ a b Geoffrey Gilbert (2004) World poverty, ABC-CLIO, p. 111, ISBN 1-85109-552-7.
- ^ "Goldman Prize". Horn Relief. 22 April 2002. Archived from the original on 12 July 2010. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
- ^ a b "International Women's Day – 8 March 2006 – Fatima Jibrell". Unep.org. 8 March 2006. Archived from the original on 14 February 2007. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
- ^ a b "Fatima Jibrell". Goldman Environmental Prize. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
- ^ "Conservation Heroes Honored by National Geographic, Buffett Foundation". National Geographic. 11 December 2008. Archived from the original on 12 September 2009. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
- ^ a b c Jonathan Clayton (4 March 2005). "Somalia's secret dumps of toxic waste washed ashore by tsunami". The Times. London. Archived from the original on 10 August 2011. Retrieved 25 February 2009.
- ^ Mukasa-Mugerwa, E. (1981). The Camel (Camelus Dromedarius): A Bibliographical Review. International Livestock Centre for Africa Monograph. Vol. 5. Ethiopia: International Livestock Centre for Africa. pp. 1, 3, 20–21, 65, 67–68.
- ^ Dickinson, E.C. (Ed.)(2003) The Howard and Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World. Revised and enlarged 3rd ed., Princeton University Press, Princeton.
- ^ FishBase 2004: a global information system on fishes. DVD. WorldFish Center – Philippine Office, Los Banos, Philippines. Published in May 2004
- ^ Uetz, P. & Jirí Hošek (eds.), The Reptile Database, htUetz, P. & Jirí Hošek (e Uetz, P. & Jirí Hošek (eds.), The Reptile Database, http://www.reptile-database.org Archived 2 November 2015 at the Wayback Machine, accessed 8 December 2013
- ^ "Somalia". The World Factbook. Langley, Virginia: Central Intelligence Agency. 2014. Archived from the original on 1 July 2014. Retrieved 8 April 2015.
- ^ "Somalia swears in historic new parliament". Al Jazeera. 20 August 2012. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 21 August 2012.
- ^ Mary Harper (1 August 2012). "Somali leaders back new constitution". BBC News. Archived from the original on 11 October 2020. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
- ^ "President's inauguration marks 'new era' for Somalia, says UN envoy". UN News Centre. 16 September 2012. Archived from the original on 11 October 2020. Retrieved 17 September 2012.
- ^ Mahmoud Mohamed (29 August 2012). "Somalia successfully concludes first elections in over 20 years". Sabahi. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 30 August 2012.
- ^ a b c d e f g h "The Federal Republic of Somalia – Provisional Constitution" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 October 2012. Retrieved 13 March 2013.
- ^ "Somalia – The World Factbook". www.cia.gov. 27 September 2021. Archived from the original on 1 July 2014. Retrieved 24 January 2021.
- ^ V-Dem Institute (2023). "The V-Dem Dataset". Archived from the original on 8 December 2022. Retrieved 14 October 2023.
- ^ "Somalia-Somaliland: A Halting Embrace of Dialogue". Crisis Group. 6 August 2020. Archived from the original on 4 March 2021. Retrieved 2 June 2021.
- ^ "Russia Digs into Somaliland-Somalia Feud as Envoy Calls for Resumption of Talks – East African Business Week". East African Business Week. 4 December 2020. Archived from the original on 31 May 2022. Retrieved 2 June 2021.
- ^ "Member states". Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Archived from the original on 9 December 2013. Retrieved 6 January 2014.
- ^ "AMISOM offers IHL training to senior officials of the Somali National Forces" (Press release). AMISOM. 29 October 2012. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 20 March 2013.
- ^ "Somalia: A Country Study – Army Ranks and Insignia" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 October 2012. Retrieved 1 June 2016.. marines.mil.
- ^ Library of Congress Country Study, Somalia, The Warrior Tradition and Development of a Modern Army Archived 7 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine, research complete May 1992.
- ^ "Somalia Re-Opens its National Intelligence & Security Agency". Walta Info. 10 January 2013. Archived from the original on 9 April 2023. Retrieved 1 September 2013.
- ^ "The countries where homosexuality is still illegal". The Week. 12 June 2019. Archived from the original on 28 November 2019. Retrieved 22 November 2019.
- ^ "UN Expert: Somalia Backtracking on Human Rights Commitments". Voice of America – English. 3 October 2020. Archived from the original on 5 October 2020. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
- ^ "CIA World Factbook: Somalia (1995)". Permanent.access.gpo.gov. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
- ^ "CIA World Factbook: Somalia (2003)". Bartleby.com. Archived from the original on 16 April 2013. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
- ^ a b c British Chambers of Commerce (2007). The British Chambers of Commerce Guide to African Markets. Ten Alps Publishing.
- ^ a b "Better Off Stateless: Somalia Before and After Government Collapse" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 January 2011. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
- ^ A. Rosati, A. Tewolde & C. Mosconi 2007.
- ^ The Arab countries demand Australian sheep and lamb Archived 15 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine – Farmonline
- ^ "Expanding Investment Finance in Northern Kenya and Other Arid Lands" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 May 2011. Retrieved 30 December 2010.
- ^ a b "Aviation". Somali Chamber of Commerce and Industry. Archived from the original on 17 May 2014. Retrieved 15 May 2014.
- ^ "Government of Punt Land State of Somalia, Lootah Investment sign strategic agreements worth Dhs170m". Ameinfo.com. Archived from the original on 6 October 2013. Retrieved 30 December 2010.
- ^ a b c "Somalia: The Resilience of a People". The African Executive. Archived from the original on 26 June 2015. Retrieved 30 December 2010.
- ^ Marc Lacey (10 July 2006). "Amid Somalia's troubles, Coca-Cola hangs on". International Herald Tribune. Archived from the original on 16 January 2021. Retrieved 18 February 2017.
- ^ Little, Peter D. (2003) Somalia: Economy without State. Indiana University Press, p. 4, ISBN 0-85255-865-1.
- ^ a b "Central Bank of Somalia – Monetary policy". Somalbanca.org. Archived from the original on 25 January 2009. Retrieved 30 December 2010.
- ^ "Central Bank of Somalia – Payment system". Somalbanca.org. Archived from the original on 22 January 2009. Retrieved 30 December 2010.
- ^ "UK Somali Remittances Survey" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 November 2020. Retrieved 30 December 2010.
- ^ a b "Decades of community service recognised with award". Tower Hamlets Recorder. 13 April 2007. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 3 June 2010.
- ^ Derby, Ron (26 March 2014). "The curious tale of the world-beating Somali shilling". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 15 August 2017. Retrieved 27 March 2014.
- ^ "Diplomat to start Somalia's first stock market". Reuters. 8 August 2012. Archived from the original on 30 September 2015. Retrieved 5 December 2013.
- ^ "Mission & Vision". Somali Energy Company. Archived from the original on 22 May 2023. Retrieved 17 April 2014.
- ^ "Somalia" (PDF). UNCTAD. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
- ^ "Exploration rights in Somalia for Chinese oil giant CNOOC". Oilmarketer.co.uk. Archived from the original on 17 September 2007. Retrieved 25 February 2009.
- ^ "OPEC: World proven crude oil reserves by country, 1960–2011". OPEC. Archived from the original on 5 September 2013. Retrieved 3 September 2013.
- ^ Doya, David Malingha (8 August 2013). "Soma Oil & Gas May Invest $20 Million to Survey War-Torn Somalia". Bloomberg BusinessWeek. Archived from the original on 25 August 2013. Retrieved 28 May 2014.
- ^ "Big Uranium Find Announced in Somalia". The New York Times. 16 March 1968. Archived from the original on 9 July 2020. Retrieved 16 May 2014.
- ^ Levich, Robert A.; Müller-Kahle, Eberhard (1983). "International Uranium Resources Evaluation Project (IUREP) Orientation Phase Mission Report, Somalia" (PDF). IAEA. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 January 2020. Retrieved 16 May 2014.
- ^ Kilimanjaro Capital Ltd. (15 April 2014). "Long Forgotten Uranium Bonanza Rediscovered, Kilimanjaro Unleashes Somalia Uranium Exploration Initiative". MarketWatch. Archived from the original on 17 May 2014. Retrieved 17 May 2014.
- ^ a b Abdinasir Mohamed; Sarah Childress (11 May 2010). "Telecom Firms Thrive in Somalia Despite War, Shattered Economy". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 18 July 2017. Retrieved 8 August 2017.
- ^ Christopher J. Coyne (2008) After war: the political economy of exporting democracy, Stanford University Press, p. 154, ISBN 0-8047-5440-3.
- ^ Abdi Hajji Hussein (4 April 2011) After 20 years, Somali president inaugurates national TV station. gantdaily.com
- ^ Majid Ahmed (11 December 2012). "Radio and electronic media edge out newspapers in Somalia". Sabahi. Archived from the original on 13 December 2012. Retrieved 21 December 2012.
- ^ SO Registry Archived 31 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Soregistry.so. Retrieved 16 August 2013.
- ^ "International mail services officially resume in Somalia". Universal Postal Union. 1 November 2013. Archived from the original on 9 November 2013. Retrieved 7 November 2013.
- ^ "Somalia's government launches postal service". BBC News. 13 October 2014. Archived from the original on 3 January 2022. Retrieved 14 October 2014.
- ^ "New tourism ministry under construction in Garowe". Sabahi. 1 November 2012. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 14 June 2013.
- ^ "Somali Tourism Association (SOMTA)". Somali Tourism Association. Archived from the original on 23 January 2019. Retrieved 14 June 2013.
- ^ "South West State to renovate Government Hotels to Attract Tourism". Goobjoog. 25 March 2015. Archived from the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 25 March 2015.
- ^ "Travel.State.Gov CSI". travelmaps.state.gov. Archived from the original on 11 March 2020. Retrieved 3 October 2019.
- ^ The First 100 Days in Office[usurped]. Waayaha.net. 26 April 2009.
- ^ Africa Review 2003: The Economic and Business Report, Walden Publishing, 2003, p. 299, ISBN 1-86217-037-1.
- ^ "World Airline Directory – Somali Airlines" (PDF). Flight International. 5–11 April 1995. Archived from the original on 8 April 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2011.
- ^ "Somalia to revive national airline after 21 years". Laanta. 24 July 2012. Archived from the original on 2 November 2014. Retrieved 3 November 2012.
- ^ "The long awaited Somali Airlines is Coming Back!". Keydmedia Online. 20 November 2013. Archived from the original on 2 December 2013. Retrieved 20 November 2013.
- ^ Linard, Catherine; Alegana, Victor A.; Noor, Abdisalan M.; Snow, Robert W.; Tatem, Andrew J. (2010). "A high resolution spatial population database of Somalia for disease risk mapping". International Journal of Health Geographics. 9 (1): 45. Bibcode:2010IJHGg...9...45L. doi:10.1186/1476-072X-9-45. PMC 2949749. PMID 20840751.
- ^ Zeid, Alaa Abou; Cochran, James J. (2014). "Understanding the crisis in Somalia". Significance. 11 (1): 4–9. doi:10.1111/j.1740-9713.2014.00717.x. S2CID 153333081.
- ^ "Somalia – population Archived 11 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine". Library of Congress Country Studies.
- ^ "Population Estimation Survey 2014 for the 18 pre-war regions of Somalia" (PDF). United Nations Population Fund. October 2014. p. 22. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 August 2017. Retrieved 20 October 2020.
- ^ a b Abdullahi 2001, pp. 8–11.
- ^ Abdullahi 2001, p. 138.
- ^ Somali Diaspora Archived 11 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine – Inner City Press
- ^ "The Somali Bantu: Their History and Culture – People". Cal.org. Retrieved 21 February 2013.[permanent dead link]
- ^ Tripodi, Paolo. The Colonial Legacy in Somalia. p. 66
- ^ Villa Somalia [@TheVillaSomalia] (1 August 2019). "Warsaxaafadeed ku saabsan celinta jinsiyaddii labaad ee Madaxweynaha Jamhuuriyadda Federaalka Soomaaliya Mudane @M_Farmaajo.pic.twitter.com/AtMOPKyN3E" (Tweet) (in Estonian). Archived from the original on 2 August 2019. Retrieved 1 August 2019 – via Twitter.
- ^ "Somalia's president renounces US citizenship". The Washington Examiner. 1 August 2019. Archived from the original on 1 August 2019. Retrieved 1 August 2019.
- ^ Bantu ethnic identities in Somalia. (PDF). Retrieved 15 December 2011.
- ^ I. M. Lewis (1998) Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar and Saho, Red Sea Press, p. 11, ISBN 1-56902-104-X.
- ^ Lecarme & Maury 1987, p. 22.
- ^ Andrew Dalby (1998) Dictionary of languages: the definitive reference to more than 400 languages, Columbia University Press, p. 571, ISBN 0-7136-7841-0.
- ^ Blench, Roger (2006). "The Afro-Asiatic Languages: Classification and Reference List" (PDF). p. 3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 October 2013. Retrieved 25 April 2021.
- ^ Economist Intelligence Unit (Great Britain) Middle East annual review (1975) p. 229
- ^ Laitin 1977, pp. 86–87.
- ^ a b "Somalia". Ethnologue. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 2 February 2020.
- ^ a b Helena Dubnov (2003) A grammatical sketch of Somali, Kِppe, pp. 70–71.
- ^ Diana Briton Putman, Mohamood Cabdi Noor (1993) The Somalis: their history and culture, Center for Applied Linguistics, p. 15.: "Somalis speak Somali. Many people also speak Arabic, and educated Somalis usually speak either English or Italian as well. Swahili may also be spoken in coastal areas near Kenya."
- ^ Fiona MacDonald et al. (2000) Peoples of Africa, Vol. 10, Marshall Cavendish, p. 178.
- ^ "Mogadishu University – Towards A Better Future". Mogadishu University. Archived from the original on 2 August 2019. Retrieved 2 August 2019.
- ^ "Puntland State University | PSU is an Agent of Change". Archived from the original on 2 August 2019. Retrieved 2 August 2019.
- ^ "Somalia | Save the Children". somalia.savethechildren.net. Archived from the original on 2 August 2019. Retrieved 2 August 2019.
- ^ "Somalia". Relief International. Archived from the original on 2 August 2019. Retrieved 2 August 2019.
- ^ "Where We Work | Care International". www.care-international.org. Archived from the original on 2 August 2019. Retrieved 2 August 2019.
- ^ "Somalia | DRC". drc.ngo (in Danish). Archived from the original on 2 August 2019. Retrieved 2 August 2019.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t "Somalia". Citypopulation. citypopulation.
- ^ "Somalia". reliefweb. reliefweb.
- ^ a b c d e "The Global Religious Landscape" (PDF). Pew Research Center. p. 49. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 August 2013. Retrieved 27 December 2013.
- ^ I. M. Lewis (1998) Saints and Somalis: Popular Islam in a Clan-based Society, The Red Sea Press, pp. 8–9, ISBN 1-56902-103-1.
- ^ "Almost expunged: Somalia's Embattled Christians". The Economist. 22 October 2009. Archived from the original on 25 October 2009. Retrieved 22 October 2009.
- ^ "Diocese of Mogadiscio". Catholic-Hierarchy.org. David M. Cheney. Retrieved 23 January 2015.
- ^ Charles George Herbermann (1913) The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and History of the Catholic Church, Vol. 14, Robert Appleton Co., p. 139.
- ^ Charles Henry Robinson (2007) [1915], History of Christian Missions, Read Books, p. 356.
- ^ Khalif, Abdulkadir (25 December 2013). "Somalia bans Christmas celebrations". Daily Nation. Archived from the original on 11 December 2017. Retrieved 3 January 2014.
- ^ "Refugees Vol. 3, No. 128, 2002 UNHCR Publication Refugees about the Somali Bantu" (PDF). United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. 1 September 2002. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 June 2011. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
- ^ Maxamed Siyaad Barre (1970) My country and my people: the collected speeches of Major-General Mohamed Siad Barre, President, the Supreme Revolutionary Council, Somali Democratic Republic, Vol. 3, Ministry of Information and National Guidance, p. 141.
- ^ a b "Entrepreneurship and Statelessness: A Natural Experiment in the Making in Somalia". Scribd.com. 1 October 2008. Archived from the original on 29 November 2010. Retrieved 30 December 2010.
- ^ "Estimates of Unit Costs for Patient Services for Somalia". World Health Organization. 6 December 2010. Archived from the original on 26 June 2006. Retrieved 12 June 2011.
- ^ a b c d e f g h UNDP (2001). Human Development Report 2001-Somalia. New York: UNDP.
- ^ a b "UNdata – Somalia". United Nations. 20 September 1960. Archived from the original on 25 February 2018. Retrieved 12 June 2011.
- ^ a b c d World Bank and UNDP (2003). Socio-Economic Survey-Somalia-2004. Washington, D.C./New York: UNDP and World Bank.
- ^ World Bank and UNDP (2003). Socio-Economic Survey-Somalia-1999. Washington, D.C./New York: UNDP and World Bank.
- ^ UNDP (2006). Human Development Report 2006. New York: UNDP.
- ^ "The State Of The World's Midwifery". United Nations Population Fund. Archived from the original on 20 January 2012. Retrieved 1 June 2016.
- ^ "Prevalence of FGM". World Health Organization. 9 December 2010. Archived from the original on 16 July 2009. Retrieved 30 December 2010.
- ^ Rose Oldfield Hayes (1975). "Female genital mutilation, fertility control, women's roles, and the patrilineage in modern Sudan: a functional analysis". American Ethnologist. 2 (4): 617–633. doi:10.1525/ae.1975.2.4.02a00030.
- ^ Herbert L. Bodman, Nayereh Esfahlani Tohidi (1998) Women in Muslim societies: diversity within unity, Lynne Rienner Publishers, p. 41, ISBN 1-55587-578-5.
- ^ Suzanne G. Frayser, Thomas J. Whitby (1995) Studies in human sexuality: a selected guide, Libraries Unlimited, p. 257, ISBN 1-56308-131-8.
- ^ Goldenstein, Rachel. "Female Genital Cutting: Nursing Implications". Journal of Transcultural Nursing. 25.1 (2014): 95–101. Web. 19 February 2014.
- ^ "Somalia: Female genital mutilation down". The Jakarta Post. Associated Press. 16 April 2013. Retrieved 17 May 2013.
- ^ "Male Circumcision and AIDS: The Macroeconomic Impact of a Health Crisis by Eric Werker, Amrita Ahuja, and Brian Wendell :: NEUDC 2007 Papers :: Northeast Universities Development Consortium Conference" (PDF). Center for International Development at Harvard University. Retrieved 30 December 2010.
- ^ a b Ali-Akbar Velayati; Valerii Bakayev; Moslem Bahadori; Seyed-Javad Tabatabaei; Arash Alaei; Amir Farahbood; Mohammad-Reza Masjedi (2007). "Religious and cultural traits in HIV/AIDS epidemics in sub-Saharan Africa" (PDF). Archives of Iranian Medicine. 10 (4): 486–497. PMID 17903054. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 April 2008.
- ^ "Mogadishu – HIV in a time of unrest". www.unaids.org.
- ^ "The Regional Office And Its Partners – Somalia". Emro.who.int. Retrieved 30 December 2010.
- ^ Ministry of Health – Puntland State of Somalia Archived 17 April 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Health.puntlandgovt.com. Retrieved 15 December 2011.
- ^ "Somaliland – Government Ministries". Somalilandgov.com. Retrieved 30 December 2010.
- ^ "Somalia – Education Overview". Wes.org. 6 May 2004. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 30 December 2010.
- ^ "Koranic School Project" (PDF). Retrieved 27 June 2010.
- ^ Mohamed Diriye Abdullahi (2001). Culture and Customs of Somalia (Culture and Customs of Africa). Internet Archive. Greenwood Press. p. 109. ISBN 978-0-313-31333-2.
- ^ "Report on Somali Diet". EthnoMed. Retrieved 22 April 2024.
- ^ Hooyoshousecom (30 June 2023). "Exploring the Aromatic World of Traditional Somali Spice Blends". Medium. Retrieved 22 April 2024.
- ^ "Yemenite Lahoh (Lachoch)". Delicious Israel. 1 January 2019. Retrieved 22 April 2024.
- ^ Mohamed Diriye Abdullahi (2001). Culture and Customs of Somalia (Culture and Customs of Africa). Internet Archive. Greenwood Press. p. 113. ISBN 978-0-313-31333-2.
- ^ "Somali Anjero (Canjeero) Anjero Somali | Xawaash.com". Archived from the original on 4 October 2023. Retrieved 22 April 2024.
- ^ Guliye, A.Y.; Noor, I.M.; Bebe, B.O.; Kosgey, I.S. (March 2007). "Role of Camels ( Camelus Dromedarius ) in the Traditional Lifestyle of Somali Pastoralists in Northern Kenya". Outlook on Agriculture. 36 (1): 29–34. Bibcode:2007OutAg..36...29G. doi:10.5367/000000007780223669. ISSN 0030-7270.
- ^ "Somali Rice Pilaf (Bariis Maraq) Riz Pilaf Somali البيلاف الصومالي". Xawaash. 14 January 2013. Archived from the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 22 April 2024.
- ^ "How Lasagna Landed in Africa". saveur. 26 September 2017.
- ^ Rose, Nick. "Spaghetti and Bananas Is Somali Comfort Food". Vice.
- ^ "The History of Coffee". Cafedirect. 19 May 2020.
- ^ Gavin, R. J. (1975). Aden Under British Rule, 1839–1967. Hurst. ISBN 978-0-903983-14-3.
- ^ "Qahwe". mysomalifood. 12 June 2011.
- ^ "Halwa, Mahyawa and Multiple Registers of Life in the Gulf". archive-stories.
- ^ Abdullahi, Mohammed (2012). Culture and Customs of Somalia (Culture and Customs of Africa). Greenwood Press. pp. 98–99. ISBN 9780313313332.
- ^ Abdullahi 2001, pp. 170–1.
- ^ Burton, Richard (1986) [1856]. First Footsteps in East Africa. Dover Publications. ISBN 9780785519973.
- ^ "1981 African Championship for Men". FIBA. Retrieved 15 December 2013.
- ^ "Somalia moves forward at world Taekwondo". Horseed Media. 6 March 2013. Archived from the original on 22 October 2013. Retrieved 19 October 2013.
- ^ "Great Victory for Malta in K1 Kickboxing". Malta Independent. 10 February 2010. Retrieved 18 October 2013.
- ^ John G. Jackson, J. Hampden Jackson (1972) Man, God and Civilization, Citadel Press, p. 216, ISBN 0-8065-0858-2.
- ^ Abdullahi 2001, p. 102.
Bibliography
- Diriye Abdullahi, Mohamed (2001). Culture and Customs of Somalia. Culture and customs of Africa. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-31333-2.
- Alpers, Edward A. (1976). "Gujarat and the Trade of East Africa, c. 1500–1800". The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 9 (1): 22–44. doi:10.2307/217389. JSTOR 217389.
- Gebru Tareke (2009). The Ethiopian Revolution: War in the Horn of Africa. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14163-4.
- Laitin, David D. (1977). Politics, Language, and Thought: The Somali Experience. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-46791-7.
- Lecarme, Jacqueline; Maury, Carole (1987). "A Software Tool for Research in Linguistics and Lexicography: Application to Somali". Computers and Translation. 2 (1): 21–36. doi:10.1007/BF01540131. S2CID 6515240.
- Mauri, Arnaldo (1971). "Banking Development in Somalia". In Dell'Amore, Giordano (ed.). Banking Systems in Africa. Milan: Cariplo – Finafrica. pp. 209–217.
- Samatar, Said S. (1982). Oral Poetry and Somali Nationalism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-10457-9.
- Schraeder, Peter J. (2006). "From Irredentism to Secession: The Decline of Pan-Somali Nationalism" (PDF). In Barrington, Lowell W. (ed.). After Independence: Making and Protecting the Nation in Postcolonial and Postcommunist States. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. pp. 107–137. ISBN 978-0-472-09898-9.
- Shay, Shaul (2014). Somalia in Transition Since 2006. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4128-5390-3.
- Warmington, Eric Herbert (1995). The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India. South Asia Books. ISBN 81-215-0670-0.
- Zolberg, Aristide R.; Suhrke, Astri; Aguayo, Sergio (1989). Escape from Violence: Conflict and the Refugee Crisis in the Developing World. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-505592-4.
- Rosati, A.; Tewolde, A.; Mosconi, C. (2007). Animal Production and Animal Science Worldwide. WAAP book of the year. Wageningen: Wageningen Academic Publishers. p. 169. ISBN 978-90-8686-034-0.
External links
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Resources from Wikiversity
Travel information from Wikivoyage
Wikimedia Atlas of Somalia- Link to >100 maps of all Somali Regions, Districts and neighborhoods of Mogadishu
- Federal Government of Somalia Archived 8 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine
- Somalia. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- Somalia web resources provided by GovPubs at the University of Colorado Boulder Libraries
- Somalia profile from BBC News
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
- Somalia
- 1960 establishments in Somalia
- Countries and territories where Arabic is an official language
- Countries in Africa
- East African countries
- Federal republics
- Horn African countries
- Least developed countries
- Member states of the African Union
- Member states of the Arab League
- Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
- Member states of the United Nations
- States and territories established in 1960
- Countries and territories where Somali is an official language